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Chapter 2: Developmental Theories and Contexts: Past and Present

Conceptions of Development Across Time

• Historical Developmental Stages

  • Ancient cultures such as Hindus, Greeks, Jews, and medieval Europeans had differing perspectives on child development.

• Traditional Cultures Examples

  • Developmental stages show both similarities and differences across cultures.

Life Stages in Historical Periods

• Figure 2.1 outlines life stages, emphasizing how different cultures and eras perceive various developmental milestones and phases.

Life Stages in Traditional Cultures

• Figure 2.2 illustrates how three traditional cultures structure life stages differently, indicating varying values and expectations.

Developmental Stages Across Traditional Cultures

Trobriand Islanders

• Infants doted upon, illustrating familial affection.

• Childhood is primarily dedicated to play until puberty.

• Adolescents experience leisure and romantic adventures, culminating in marriage marking the transition to adulthood.

Maya

• Children are cared for by mothers and then older female relatives.

• Gender-specific responsibilities arise during middle childhood.

• Cultural practices dictate formal marriage arrangements taking up to two years.

Conclusions on Traditional Cultures

• There are notable similarities and differences in developmental patterns across cultures.

• Specific terms for life stages indicate clear expectations for behaviors and responsibilities at each stage among communities like the Gusii and Trobrianders.

Contemporary Scientific Conceptions of Development

• Theories include psychosocial, cognitive-developmental, learning, biological, contextual, and cultural theories, each providing different lenses to understand development.

Psychosocial Theory

• Erikson’s Stages

  • Human development is framed around social integration.

  • First five stages:

    • Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy)

    • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (toddlerhood)

    • Initiative vs. Guilt (early childhood)

    • Industry vs. Inferiority (middle to late childhood)

    • Identity vs. Identity Confusion (adolescence)

Cognitive-Developmental Theories

• Jean Piaget

  • Focuses on how cognitive development progresses through distinct stages.

  • Cognitive abilities form coherent structures evolving through maturation and environmental interaction.

Learning Theories

• Key Concepts:

  • Social learning, behaviorism, and social-cognitive theory emphasize the role of environment in shaping behavior and learning through observation and conditioning.

Biological Theories

• Branches:

  • Evolutionary Psychology: Language is biologically rooted.

  • Behavior Genetics: Examines the influence of genetics and environment on behavior.

  • Neuroscience: Explores brain characteristics shaping human behavior and thought.

Contextual Theories

Ecological Theory

• Bronfenbrenner’s Model:

  • Development influenced by five environments: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

Developmental Systems Theories

• Stresses reciprocal interactions between biology and context, highlighting that development is an active, lifelong process.

Cultural Theories

• Focuses on Culture's Role:

  • Research predominantly comes from Western perspectives and often overlooks minority cultural contexts.

Research Contexts in Development

• Families

  • Vary in structure and role across cultures; extended families are common in traditional societies.

• Relationships

  • Friends, peers, and romantic partners play critical roles in development, especially during adolescence.

• School

  • Provides a crucial environment for academic achievement, shaping future development.

Contemporary Research Contexts

• Expansion into how work, media, and civic/religious institutions affect development, with specific attention on differences between developed and developing countries.

Determinism and Agency

• Questions how much children's early experiences determine their development versus how much they actively participate in shaping their own development.

Early Experiences and Sensitive Periods

• Early deprivation increases risks for long-lasting problems, highlighting critical learning windows.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Reflects historical perspectives highlighting the interplay between biological predispositions and environmental influence, with modern perspectives advocating for a balanced view.

Diverse Pathways Across Cultures

• Acknowledges varying developmental pathways shaped by diverse cultural contexts, emphasizing ongoing inclusion in psychological research.