Class 2 M 09/08/25: From Monarchy to Republic

The initial focus of this study is on Rome's political history, particularly the transition from monarchy to republic, its expansion, and eventual decline, to provide context for other aspects of Roman life. The monarchical period, lasting about two and a half weeks, proves challenging to verify due to its reliance on oral tradition and a lack of contemporary written records. While later Republican and Imperial era texts discuss the monarchy, no original written remnants from the period itself exist, possibly due to loss or Rome being pre-literate before the adoption of Etruscan and Greek languages into Latin. This era, though steeped in myth and dubious historical accuracy, profoundly influenced Roman self-perception and modern speech, such as the expressions "rolling out the red carpet" and "my hill to die on."

Surprisingly, Roman kingship was not primarily hereditary. Many kings were foreigners, chosen or voted into power, or assumed power through hostile takeovers and assassinations, highlighting that civil strife and immigration were integral to Rome's early identity. The notion that "anyone could be Roman" and become king or emperor was a significant cultural value. Despite the historical inaccuracies concerning the number of kings for 253 years, the essential fact is that Romans created these myths to define their identity, regardless of literal truth. Rome's monarchy, spanning from 753 to 509 BCE, marks a period of approximately 250 years where Rome, initially not destined for greatness, overcame challenges like a largely immigrant population, resource scarcity, and disease (malaria from mosquito-infested areas before irrigation was developed) to eventually flourish.

Rome was founded on April 21, 753 BCE. However, a detailed history prior to 300 BCE (the Republic period) is difficult to reconstruct, with existing works being fragmented. Main sources like Livy and Dionysus quote destroyed works, leaving no original literary tradition from the monarchy. Archaeological evidence also presents challenges; Rome's continuous rebuilding over millennia meant earlier, often less durable structures are buried deep or have decomposed, making consistent findings rare until around 500 BCE when urbanization signs become more evident. Like family oral traditions, Rome's founding myths reinforced core ideas and beliefs, adapting over time but retaining their essential cultural significance. These founding myths, often a blend of legend and real events, served to reinforce Roman cultural values, similar to American myths like George Washington and the cherry tree or Paul Revere's ride.

Rome has two crucial founding myths: the story of Aeneas and the story of Romulus and Remus. Aeneas, a demigod son of Venus and a Trojan prince, is a refugee from Troy, a figure mentioned by Homer, fated to found a race greater than the Trojans. His story, recounted by Virgil in the Aeneid, depicts him fleeing burning Troy, traveling the Mediterranean, and eventually marrying a Latin princess to father a line that would become Romans. Aeneas embodies Roman values of immigration, sacrifice, and pietas (piety), which for Romans meant devotion to the gods, family, and civic duty. He symbolizes the integration of these ideals into one character, setting Rome within the broader Greek-Trojan saga tradition. Aeneas is considered the father of Italy, not Rome, living for three years in Italy before his son rules Alba Longa for 30 years. After 300 years, from the same bloodline, the twins Romulus and Remus are born in Alba Longa, their legend starting with an evil uncle ordering their death. They are placed in a basket and sent downriver, reminiscent of other significant figures in oral tradition. They are nursed by a lupa (she-wolf, or possibly a prostitute) and later raised by a farmer. They avenge their mother, kill their uncle, and decide to build a city at the site where they were found. In a contest, Romulus kills Remus, becoming Rome's first king and namesake, building the city on the Capitoline and Palatine Hills.

Rome's history is structured into three distinct periods: Monarchy, Republic, and Empire. Romulus, the first king, reigned for about 35 years, a period length that, like those of the other six kings, suggests legendary rather than precise historical accounts. Roman monarchs, or rex, were elected for life by the people, not through heredity, often by taking over power violently. Kings held supreme imperium, encompassing executive, judicial, legislative, and military authority. Romulus established the Senate, an advisory body of elders (senex), which could be convened by the king but its advice could be ignored. The king also served as Rome's chief augur, a priest who read bird patterns for omens, a practice reflected in modern terms like "auspicious." Upon a king's death, an interregnum (in-between king) would occur until the Senate could grant the power to elect a new king, after seeking approval from the people and checking auspices.

Each of Rome's seven kings is known for specific contributions:

1. Romulus: Founder of Rome, established the Senate, and expanded Rome's population, famously through the abduction of the Sabine women. This event ensured Rome's future survival by integrating people into the new society.

2. Numa Pompilius: The religious king, known for justice and piety, whose reign was marked by peace. He established many religious institutions like the Temple of Janus, Vestal Virgins, and the role of Pontifex Maximus, and adjusted the calendar to 12 months.

3. Tullus Hostilius: A warrior king who expanded Rome's borders, notably by conquering Alba Longa, with a famous myth involving the Horatii and Curiatii triplets.

4. Ancus Marcius: The builder king, known for founding Rome's seaport at Ostia (the mouth of the Tiber River), building its first prison, and constructing the first bridge across the Tiber.

5. Tarquinius Priscus: The first Etruscan king, he drained the valleys between hills to create the Roman Forum and built the Circus Maximus, doubling Rome's size through warfare.

6. Servius Tullius: Also Etruscan, he was originally a slave who married Ancus Marcius' granddaughter, recognized by an ominous flame above his head. He became a political reformer, instituting a census. His assassination by his daughter and her husband marked increasing political violence.

7. Tarquinius Superbus: The last king, his name meaning arrogant or proud, was known for his cruel and violent rule, disregard for Roman traditions, and abuse of power. His notable achievement was finishing the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. His son's rape of Lucretia, and Tarquinius's failure to punish him, symbolized an egregious abuse of power that became a catalyst for civil war and the overthrow of the monarchy. This event, much like America's Boston Tea Party, was aggrandized to validate the people's desire to change the government, signifying that no one, not even the king, was above the law.

Crucial cultural insights from these foundation myths include the theme of violence and sacrifice being inherent to Roman society, often provoked rather than initiated by Romans. The stories also highlight the importance of status over autonomy, with women serving as catalysts for change. The rape of the Sabine women ensured Rome's future, while the rape of Lucretia instigated the end of the monarchy, demonstrating how violations of power were articulated through compelling narratives. Around 500 BCE, coinciding with the end of the monarchy, archaeological evidence of urbanization and trade with other regions starts to align more definitively with literary traditions, confirming Rome's growth and increasing status within the Mediterranean basin.

The transition to a Republic, meaning "public affairs" (res publica), marked a period where Rome would elect officials, not kings. The term "king" became anathema, a word that could lead to a powerful man's downfall, as seen later with Julius Caesar. Lucius Junius Brutus, from the same family line as Caesar's assassin, led the revolt against Tarquinius Superbus, establishing a government ruled by the Senate, which now held legislative power. Two consuls, elected annually, would share executive power, each possessing the power of veto (Latin for "I forbid"), acting as checks and balances. Within about a century, archaeological and literary traditions would converge further, though some legendary elements persisted. This early Republic, spanning roughly 500 years, saw Rome expand from a small city to controlling the entire Mediterranean basin. This period instilled a new set of values, focusing on avoiding tyranny and implementing extensive checks and balances to prevent individuals from gaining too much power. This commitment to libertas (liberty, freedom from tyranny) became a philosophical and cultural identity, interweaving politics, gender, geography, and cityscape. While not perfect, with issues like social hierarchy, slavery, war, famine, and disease, the ideal of people fighting and dying for liberty was a powerful concept.

Facing external challenges from other Latin cities, Rome developed the Latin League, a system of alliances. Instead of eliminating enemies, Rome absorbed them, offering Roman citizenship benefits in exchange for protection and allyship. This template facilitated Romanization and cultural diffusion as Rome expanded, creating stable, long-lasting partnerships with conquered areas that bought into the Roman ideal of protection and shared governance. This strategic approach allowed Rome to solidify its position on the Italian peninsula and become a dominant power.