Reconstruction and the Rise and Fall of Republican Power

Congressional Reconstruction and Ulysses S. Grant

• Congress began taking over Reconstruction due to perceived ineffectiveness and racism.
• Within three years post-Civil War, Republicans (both white and black) gained power in the South.

The Election of 1868

• Andrew Johnson was deemed unfit and problematic, becoming a lame duck president; he did not run again.
• Republicans nominated Ulysses S. Grant, a popular military hero from the Civil War who supported the continuation of Reconstruction.
• Grant's opponent was Horatio Seymour, the New York governor, who campaigned on ending Reconstruction.
• Grant won the election, becoming the 18th President on March 4, 1869.
• Electoral College: Grant received 214 votes to Seymour's 80.
• Popular Vote: Grant secured 52.7% of the vote.

Readmission of Confederate States and the Fifteenth Amendment

• Remaining ex-Confederate states (Virginia, Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia) were readmitted to the Union.
• Requirement for readmission: ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment.
• The Fifteenth Amendment (ratified in 1870) prohibited states from denying citizens the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

African Americans in Politics During Reconstruction

• African Americans, now with voting rights, gained representation at the federal, state, and local levels.
• Historian Eric Foner estimated that approximately 2,000 African Americans held public office during Reconstruction.

Federal Level

• Hiram Revels: From Mississippi, became the first African American U.S. Senator, appointed to fill a vacancy.
• Blanche Bruce: Another Mississippi Republican, the first African American Senator to serve a full term.
• Robert Smalls: Served five terms in the U.S. House of Representatives for South Carolina.

State and Local Levels

• Over 600 African Americans, mostly formerly enslaved, served as legislators.
• Every state had African American local officials.
• Positions held: city and town council members, sheriff, magistrate, school commissioner.
• Expansion of freedoms and rights for African Americans during Reconstruction despite constant violence.

Threats to African Americans and the Rise of White Supremacist Groups

• Numerous threats to African Americans began immediately post-Civil War (1865) and increased in subsequent years.
• By 1870, groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), Knights of the White Camellia, White Brotherhood, Seymour and Blair societies, and the Southern Cross emerged.
• These groups grew in response to the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the Fourteenth Amendment (which responded to the Black Codes), and Grant's election in 1868.

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

• Used extra-legal means and originated in 1866 by six ex-Confederate soldiers.
• Distinguished by elaborate rituals, costumes, and secret passwords.
• Lacked a well-organized structure or defined regional leadership but shared a unity of purpose and common tactics.
• Served the interests of the Democratic Party, the planter class, and those desiring the restoration of white supremacy.
• Acted as vigilantes with a political purpose: to undermine Reconstruction, reestablish control over the black labor force, and restore racial hierarchy.

Violence and Intimidation

• By the election of 1868, Klansmen conducted night raids to intimidate African American voters.
• The violence was often committed by energetic young men, while older, influential figures chose the targets.
• Democrats minimized the Klan's activities or rationalized them, sometimes denying the group's existence or characterizing victims as deserving of violence.

Federal Response: The Enforcement Acts

• Initially, Grant did not take significant action against the KKK.
• However, increased terror led Republicans to intervene in Southern affairs.
• Congress empowered Grant to use military force to protect African Americans through the Enforcement Acts:
  • Enforcement Acts: three laws passed between 1870 and 1875.

Specifics of the Enforcement Acts

• First Act: Prohibited groups from banding together to violate citizens' constitutional rights, particularly voting rights based on race; aimed at preventing voter intimidation and bribery.
• Second Act: Provided federal supervision of Southern elections; interfering with voting rights became a federal crime.
• Third Act: The most sweeping, allowing the president to use federal troops to enforce the law and suspend habeas corpus in areas declared in insurrection.

Implementation and Results

• Grant used these acts to prosecute the KKK beginning in 1872.
• By 1872, the federal government had demonstrated a willingness to suppress the KKK, leading to its disbandment for a time.

Waning Support for Reconstruction

• Public support for Reconstruction and prolonged intervention in the South began to decline.
• Amos Ackerman (Attorney General during Reconstruction) noted that Northern Republicans were losing interest in further legislation regarding the South.
• Republican support for a vigorous policy of intervention waned due to concerns about damaging the party's prospects in the North.
• Some argued that focusing on Reconstruction detracted from other issues, such as the economic downturn of 1873.

Economic Issues and Scandals

• The Panic of 1873: Railroads and banks faced bankruptcy, leading to an economic depression during Grant's presidency.
• Grant's loyalty to associates led to corruption and scandals within his administration; he did not purge his inner circle of corrupt individuals.
• Whiskey Ring Scandal: Officials conspired to defraud the government of tax revenue related to whiskey sales.
• These scandals further distracted from and undermined Reconstruction efforts.

The "Redeemers" and the Collapse of Reconstruction

• White Northerners became disinterested in Reconstruction and retaining African American rights.
• A political coalition known as "Redeemers" called for the redemption of the South, meaning a return to white supremacy.
• Increased racism in the North: Northern newspapers changed their portrayal of African Americans, increasing derogatory images.
• Stereotypical portrayals of African Americans became more acceptable and prevalent.
• The Republican Party's ability to protect African American rights deteriorated, leading to the collapse of Republican control in the South.
• By 1877, all former Confederate states were "redeemed" by Democrats, who aimed to limit African American civil and voting rights.

End of Reconstruction

• Virginia and Tennessee were taken over by Redeemers as early as 1869; all other former Confederate states followed by 1877.
• This marked the end of the country's commitment to Reconstruction and African American equality.
• Southern states rewrote their constitutions, removed African Americans from positions of power, and instituted voting laws to limit African American participation.

The Jim Crow Era

• Restrictions on African Americans led to the Jim Crow era, where they were denied the right to vote and hold office.
• Voting restrictions included poll taxes, literacy tests, and residency requirements, which disproportionately affected African Americans.
• The literacy tests were particularly difficult, requiring knowledge of obscure facts and complex instructions.
• The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments laid the constitutional foundation for future advances in equality and civil rights.