Political Parties - Comprehensive Study Notes

Introduction

• Chapter focus: Political Parties (American Government & Politics Today, 2015–2016 ed.)
• “Think Globally, Act Locally” theme underscores how local party activity links to national/global politics.
• Central question: How do U.S. political parties function, evolve, and affect governance?

Learning Outcomes (8.1 – 8.6)

• 8.1 Define parties’ roles in the U.S. system.
• 8.2 Identify & assess the three major party components and their coherence mechanisms.
• 8.3 Trace party origins; evaluate shifts in strength & importance over time.
• 8.4 Compare demographic/ideological bases of Democrats vs. Republicans.
• 8.5 Explain two-party reinforcement factors; diagnose third-party failure at national level.
• 8.6 Discuss the rise of political independents and forecast consequences.

Defining a Political Party & Core Functions

• Political party: Organized group seeking to influence government by electing its members to public office.
• Key functions
  • Recruit & nominate candidates.
  • Mobilize voters; simplify electoral choices via party label.
  • Formulate platforms—sets of policy positions.
  • Organize government once in office; provide cues for common action.
  • Act as opposition when out of power, providing accountability.

The Three Components of a Party

1. Party-in-the-Electorate
   • All individuals who identify with or regularly support a party.
   • Provide grassroots energy, votes, small-donor funding.
2. Party Organization
   • Formal, institutional structure: national, state, local committees.
   • Raises money, recruits candidates, crafts strategy & platforms.
3. Party-in-Government
   • Elected officials labeled R or D; caucus to enact policy.
   • Translate platform into law; also signal party brand to voters.

Party Organization (Institutional Layer)

• National Convention
  • Meets every 4 yrs; nominates presidential ticket.
  • Delegates selected by primaries/caucuses; reflect party factions.
  • Adopts the party platform—formal issue positions.
• National Committee (DNC, RNC)
  • Continuous operation between conventions; fundraising, candidate support, get-out-the-vote (GOTV).
• State Party Organizations
  • Conduct primaries, select electors, coordinate with national committee.
• Local Organizations (county committees, ward & precinct captains)
  • Historically “machines” (e.g., Tammany Hall) offering patronage; modern focus on voter registration, local races.

Party-in-Government Dynamics

• Divided Government: Different parties control presidency vs. one/both chambers of Congress → encourages bargaining, but can create gridlock.
• Ticket splitting
  • Voters choose different parties for different offices → weakens party unity, seen where independents dominate.
• Limits of Party Unity
  • Ideological diversity within each caucus; regional splits (e.g., Blue-Dog Democrats, Freedom Caucus Republicans).
• Party Polarization
  • Ideological distance between parties grows → fewer moderates.
• Safe Seats
  • Districts drawn/behave to almost guarantee one party’s win (gerrymandering + demographic clustering) → intensifies polarization.

Historical Development of U.S. Party Systems

First Party System (1789 – 1828)

• Federalists vs. Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans.
• 1800: Jefferson’s victory ⇒ first peaceful transfer of power.
• Issues: central banking, federal authority.

Era of Good Feelings (≈1816–1824)

• Collapse of Federalists ⇒ one major party; politics became personal/factional rather than partisan.

Second Party System (1828 – 1860)

• Democrats (Andrew Jackson) vs. Whigs (Henry Clay).
• Mass mobilization, national nominating conventions, spoils system.

Third Party System (1860 – 1896)

• Modern Republican Party forms (anti-slavery coalition).
• Civil War & Reconstruction; GOP dominant in North.
• Slogan “Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion” epitomizes cultural cleavage (anti-Catholic, anti-South rhetoric).
• 1860 Lincoln victory; “Triumph of the Republicans.”

1896 Election Map (Fourth System Transition)

• William McKinley (R) defeats William Jennings Bryan (D).
• Electoral vote 271 vs. 176; popular vote 7{,}104{,}779 (R) vs. 6{,}502{,}925 (D).
• Marks start of Fourth Party System.

Fourth Party System (1896 – 1932)

• Progressive interlude (Theodore Roosevelt) but GOP generally dominant.
• Issues: industrial regulation, trusts, tariffs.

Fifth Party System (1932 – 1968)

• FDR’s New Deal Coalition: urban workers, South, immigrants, African Americans.
• Democrats dominant; expanded federal social programs.

Post-Party System / Sixth? (1968 – Present)

• Debate: realignment or dealignment era.
• Red State / Blue State pattern emerges (South & Plains trend Republican; coasts & urban areas trend Democratic).
• 2012 partisan trends illustrate durability yet competitiveness.

2012 Presidential Election Snapshot

• Barack Obama (D) 332 electoral votes (≈62 ext{%} EV share).
• Mitt Romney (R) 206 electoral votes (≈38 ext{%} EV share).
• Note: Swing states (OH, FL, VA, CO) decisive.

The Two Major Parties Today

Membership Demographics

• Democrats: younger, more women, racial/ethnic minorities, urban residents, secular or non-evangelical religious traditions, lower & upper extremes of income distribution.
• Republicans: older, more men, whites (esp. non-college), rural/suburban, evangelical Protestants, higher military affiliation, small-business owners.

Policy Priority Differences (Top-10 list visualized)

• Democrats prioritize
  • The economy, education, poverty/homelessness, healthcare, Social Security/Medicare, income distribution, environment, crime reform, gun policy reform, immigration reform.
• Republicans prioritize (order differs)
  • Economy + jobs, terrorism & national defense, taxes, healthcare (cost control, repeal ACA), immigration (border security), crime, military strength, gun rights, world affairs, education (local control).

Issues Emerging from 2012 → 2014/2016

• Social: abortion, contraception (Hobby Lobby), same-sex marriage debates.
• International: ISIS rise, Russia–Ukraine tensions.
• Immigration: DREAM Act, DACA executive action.

Why the Two-Party System Endures

1. Historical Foundations: Early cleavage (Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist) created expectation of two balanced sides.
2. Political Socialization/Practicality: Voters learn politics through R/D lens; parties supply quick heuristic.
3. Winner-Take-All Electoral System
   • Single-member districts + plurality rule ⇒ Duverger’s Law predicts two parties.
   • Electoral College amplifies this: 270-vote threshold demands broad coalitions.
4. State & Federal Ballot Laws
   • Signature requirements, debate thresholds, matching funds favor entrenched parties.
5. Strategic Voting: Avoid “wasting” votes on minor parties.

Minor (Third) Parties

• Ideological parties (e.g., Libertarian, Green) – consistent worldviews.
• Splinter parties – break from major party over personality or issue (e.g., Bull Moose, Dixiecrats).
• Impacts
  • Inject new ideas (e.g., women’s suffrage, environmentalism).
  • Act as “safety valve” for dissent.
  • Spoiler effect: can alter outcome (e.g., 2000 Nader in FL).

Mechanisms of Political Change

Realignment

• Overarching, lasting shift in party coalitions around critical elections (1800, 1860, 1932 archetypes).
• Myths:
  • Dominance myth—no coalition stays unbeatable (GOP lost 1932; Democrats lost 1968).
  • Predictability myth—realignments are recognized only retroactively.
• Is another realignment possible? Possibly via demographic waves (e.g., Millennials + minorities) or disruptive issues (climate change, populism).

Dealignment & Rise of Independents

• Voters move away from party labels → more identify as Independent.
• However, Not-So-Independent: most independents “lean” D or R and vote consistently with that lean.
• Independent share now leading: 42\% vs. Democrats 30\%, Republicans 25\% (2014 Gallup).

Tipping

• Definition: Demographic group grows large enough to tip a competitive state/region to one party.
• Massachusetts: Irish Catholics once tipped state to Democrats.
• California: Latino + Asian American growth tipped state solid blue in 1990s-2000s.

Party Identification Trend Graph (1938 → Present)

• Long-term pattern
  • Democrats dominant mid-20th c.
  • Republicans gain mid-1960s-1980s.
  • Independents surge post-1970s, reaching plurality today.
• Visual data points (approx.):
  • 1936 D≈50\%, R≈30\%, I≈20\%.
  • 2014 I≈42\%, D≈30\%, R≈25\%.

Ethical, Philosophical & Practical Implications

• Representation vs. Governance: Two-party simplicity aids clarity yet may mute minority views.
• Polarization challenges Madisonian checks & balances; fosters gridlock but clarifies choices.
• Third-party exclusion raises questions of democratic fairness; election reforms (ranked-choice, proportional representation) debated.
• Independent rise may force parties to broaden appeal or risk fragmentation.

Key Terms & Concepts (Quick-Reference)

• Party-in-electorate / party organization / party-in-government
• National convention, delegates, platform, national committee
• Divided government, ticket splitting, safe seats, polarization
• Realignment, dealignment, tipping, spoiler effect
• Winner-take-all, plurality, proportional representation

Formulas & Statistics Highlighted

• Electoral College victory threshold: 270 of 538 votes.
• 1896 electoral split: McKinley\;271{:}176\;Bryan.
• 2012 electoral split: Obama\;332{:}206\;Romney.
• Current ID (Gallup): I=42\%,\;D=30\%,\;R=25\%.

Looking Forward

• Demographic trends (urbanization, racial diversity) vs. geographic polarization (rural-urban divide) may redefine coalition maps.
• Technology (micro-targeting, social media) alters party mobilization, possibly weakening traditional organizations.
• Institutional reforms (open primaries, ranked-choice voting) could mitigate polarization and provide minor parties a foothold.