Roman Army

Legionaries: Roman citizens; better equipped and trained, higher pay, and held prestigious roles.

Auxiliaries: Non-citizens; provided specialized skills (e.g., archery, cavalry), received lower pay, and could gain citizenship after service.

Legion: A unit of 4,000–6,000 soldiers. The eagle symbolized Roman strength, unity, and divine protection.

- Legatus: Commander of a legion.

- Tribune: Senior officer, often of noble rank.

- Centurion: Commander of a century (80 soldiers).

- Primus Pilus: Chief centurion of a legion.

- Optio: Centurion’s deputy.

- Tessarius: Keeper of passwords and security.

- Praetorium: General’s headquarters, symbolized hierarchy.

- Quaestorium: Supply and finance office.

- Vindolanda’s Praetorium: shows space reflected rank.

• Pilum (spear)

• gladius (short sword)

• scutum (shield)

• lorica segmentata (armor)

6. Tactics & Tools:

- Tactics: Testudo (tortoise formation), flanking, disciplined infantry lines.

- Tools:

- Tormentum: Siege engine.

- Catapulta: Arrow launcher.

- Ballista: Large crossbow.

- Testudo: Shield wall.

7. Caesar’s conquests: Gaul (modern France and Belgium).

8. Loyalty: Shared spoils of war and led from the front.

9. Vercingetorix: Gallic leader, defeated at the Battle of Alesia.

10. Pompey the Great: Caesar’s rival in the First Triumvirate; opposed him in the Civil War.

11. Senate’s ban: Prevent military coups. Civil war started when Caesar crossed the Rubicon.

12. Ides of March: Caesar assassinated by senators in 44 BCE.

13. Key Battles:

- Pharsalus: Caesar defeats Pompey.

- Actium: Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra.

14. Quintilius Varus: Lost three legions in Teutoburg Forest, shaming Rome.

15. Octavian’s reforms: Professionalized the army, established fixed salaries and pensions.

16. Queen Boudica: Led a rebellion against Roman rule in Britannia (60 CE).

17. Roman dominance: Discipline, innovative tactics, infrastructure, and adaptability.

18. Rule and reshape: Unified vast territories through roads, laws, and assimilation.

19. Fall: Overextension, internal corruption, barbarian invasions.

20. Caligula’s death: Shows legions could overthrow emperors, highlighting their power.On