(27) AP Psychology Unit 4 Review [Everything You NEED to Know]

Introduction to Learning in AP Psychology (4.1)

Learning occurs in various ways, each with unique mechanisms and implications for understanding behavior:

Types of Learning

1. Association: Connecting experiences or items based on their sequence. For example, if a person hears a bell before receiving food, they may start to associate the sound of the bell with food.

2. Observational Learning: Learning by watching others. In Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, children learned aggressive behaviors by observing adults, highlighting the importance of role models and social contexts.

3. Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately observable; it occurs without reinforcement until a reward is introduced. For example, rats in a maze can navigate faster once a reward is presented.

4. Social Learning: Learning through interaction with others, involving mimicking behaviors and social cues.

5. Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a solution without trial and error, as seen in chimpanzees using tools to reach bananas.

6. Trial-and-error Learning: Involves experimenting with various strategies until success is achieved. It is common in situations where solutions are not obvious.

7. Accidental Reinforcement: Unintended consequences leading to superstitious behavior, where individuals associate random stimuli with positive outcomes.

Key Figures in Learning Theory (4.2)

Several pioneering psychologists have shaped the understanding of learning:

1. John Garcia: Discovered taste aversion, emphasizing the survival advantages of certain learned associations.

2. Albert Bandura: Known for observational learning and the Bobo doll experiment, showing children imitate behaviors observed in adults.

3. Edward Tolman: Researched latent learning through rats navigating mazes, demonstrating learning occurs without immediate reinforcement.

4. Edward Thorndike: Proposed the law of effect, stating responses followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

5. Ivan Pavlov: Established classical conditioning through experiments with dogs, illustrating how associations form between stimuli.

6. B.F. Skinner: Expanded on Thorndike's work to formulate principles of operant conditioning using reinforcement and punishment.

7. Robert Rescorla: Highlighted cognitive aspects of learning, showing that associations are influenced by predictability.

8. John B. Watson: Focused on behaviorism, asserting that observable behavior is shaped by interaction with the environment.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov's Experiment) (4.3)

Classical conditioning involves key components explaining how associations are formed:

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (e.g., food triggers salivation).

2. Unconditioned Response (UR): The automatic response produced by the US (e.g., salivation when presented with food).

3. Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially induces no response (e.g., a bell before conditioning).

4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Once paired with the US, it begins to evoke a learned response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).

5. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

6. Acquisition: The process of pairing the NS with the US to achieve a CS.

7. Extinction: The weakening of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the US.

8. Spontaneous Recovery: The re-emergence of the CR after a pause following extinction.

9. Stimulus Generalization: When similar stimuli elicit the trained CR.

10. Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to differentiate the CS from other stimuli.

11. Higher-Order Conditioning: A new NS paired with an existing CS to elicit a CR.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner's Work) (4.4)

Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of behavior:

1. Operant Conditioning: A form of learning where behavior is modified by reinforcing or punishing consequences.

2. Law of Effect: States that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are repeated, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are not.

3. Skinner Box: An apparatus used to study operant conditioning, where animals are rewarded for desired behaviors.

4. Shaping: Gradually reinforcing successive approximations to reach a desired behavior.

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment (4.5)

Understanding reinforcement and punishment is crucial for modifying behavior:

1. Positive Reinforcement: Introducing a positive stimulus after a desired behavior increases its likelihood (e.g., praise).

2. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to encourage a behavior (e.g., taking away chores).

3. Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., timeout).

4. Negative Punishment: Taking away a positive stimulus to reduce unwanted behavior (e.g., revoking privileges).

Reinforcement Schedules (4.6)

Different schedules impact the effectiveness of reinforcement:

1. Fixed Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after a specific number of responses (e.g., free drink after ten coffees).

2. Fixed Interval Schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed time period (e.g., receiving a paycheck bi-weekly).

3. Variable Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines).

4. Variable Interval Schedule: Reinforcement after varying time intervals, maintaining consistent behavior (e.g., surprise quizzes).

5. Overjustification Effect: When external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation.

Social and Cognitive Factors in Learning (4.7)

Learning is influenced by multiple interconnected factors:

1. Biological, psychological, and social factors affect learning capabilities.

2. Preparedness: Biological predisposition to form certain associations easier, enhancing survival.

3. Instinctive Drift: Tendency for learned behaviors to revert to innate instincts.

4. Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of environments, as demonstrated in Tolman's experiments with rats.

5. Social Learning: Observing and modeling behaviors based on others' experiences.

6. Locus of Control: How much control one believes they have over outcomes, distinguishing internal from external factors.

Coping Strategies (4.8)

Effective coping strategies can mitigate stress impact:

1. Problem-Focused Coping: Directly addressing stress-inducing situations to find solutions.

2. Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional responses to stressors rather than altering the stressor itself.