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Key Terms and Definitions

Formal Region
An area defined by a uniform characteristic, such as language, culture, or political organization (e.g., a country, state, or climate region)1.

Subsistence Agriculture
Farming in which crops are grown mainly for the farmer’s family, not for sale or trade2.

Environmental Determinism
The idea that human culture and society are shaped primarily by environmental factors such as climate and geography3.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
The average number of children a woman would have over her lifetime, assuming current age-specific fertility rates4.

Ethnocentrism
Belief that one’s own culture or ethnicity is superior to others5.

Agglomeration
The clustering of businesses or industries in a particular area to benefit from shared services, infrastructure, or labor markets6.

Vertical Integration
A business strategy where a company controls multiple stages of production, from raw materials to final product distribution7.

Cultural Diffusion
The spread of cultural elements (ideas, styles, religions, technologies) from one area or group to others8.

Cultural Landscape
A geographic area that shows evidence of human activity and interaction with the environment9.

Cultural Traits
Individual elements of culture, such as language, clothing, religion, or customs10.

Primate City
A city that is disproportionately larger than any others in the country, often more than twice the size of the next largest city1114.

Central Place Theory
A theory explaining the distribution and organization of cities and towns based on their provision of goods and services12.

• Threshold: Minimum population needed for a service to be viable13.

• Range: Maximum distance people are willing to travel for a service13.

Ethnic Neighborhood
An area within a city where residents share a common ethnicity or cultural background.

Gerrymandering
Manipulating electoral district boundaries to favor a particular party or group (through "packing" or "cracking")15.

Time-Space Convergence
The idea that technology (especially transportation and communication) reduces the time it takes to move people, goods, or ideas, making places "closer" together.

Maquiladoras
Factories in Mexico, often near the U.S. border, that import materials duty-free and export assembled products.

New Urbanism
A planning movement promoting walkable neighborhoods, mixed-use development, and sustainable urban design.

Creolized Language
A stable, fully developed language that arises from the mixing of two or more languages.

Extensive Agriculture (with example)
Farming that uses large areas of land with minimal labor or input per acre (e.g., cattle ranching in Australia).

Consequent Boundaries
Political boundaries drawn to accommodate existing cultural, linguistic, or ethnic differences.

Stateless Nation
An ethnic group or nation without its own sovereign state (e.g., Kurds, Palestinians).

Concepts and Examples to Review

Examples of Stateless Nations

• Kurds (Middle East)

• Palestinians (Middle East)

• Basques (Spain/France)

• Tibetans (China)

Mediterranean Agriculture Locations
Found in regions with a Mediterranean climate: Southern Europe (Spain, Italy, Greece), California, parts of Chile, South Africa, and Australia.

Central Place Theory: Threshold and Range

• Threshold: Minimum population needed to support a service13.

• Range: Maximum distance consumers will travel for a service13.

Primate City vs. Rank-Size Rule

Census and Gerrymandering

• The U.S. Census determines population counts, which are used to redraw congressional districts15.

• Packing: Concentrating opposition voters in one district.

• Cracking: Spreading opposition voters across many districts.

• Outcomes: Can create uncompetitive districts and skew representation.

Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces

Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) and Population Growth
RNI is the difference between birth and death rates. Populations can grow even as fertility rates decline due to population momentum (large base of young people)17.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM) Stages

• Stage 1: High birth/death rates, low growth

• Stage 2: Death rates drop, high growth

• Stage 3: Birth rates fall, growth slows

• Stage 4: Low birth/death rates, stable population

• Stage 5: Birth rates below death rates, population decline possible18

Supranational Organizations
Groups of countries that transfer some sovereignty to a higher authority (e.g., European Union)19.

Economic Activities

Purpose of Free Trade Zones (e.g., USMCA/NAFTA)
To reduce trade barriers and promote economic cooperation between member countries.

Migration: Rural to Urban
Significant in 19th/20th centuries; fueled urbanization and economic development.

Industrialization & Mechanization in U.S. Agriculture
Increased productivity, reduced labor needs, and led to larger farm sizes.

Development Data Interpretation

• HDI: Measures life expectancy, education, income.

• GDP/GNI per capita: Economic output per person.

• Higher values = more developed.

Push and Pull Factors of Migration

New Urbanism on the Landscape
Walkable neighborhoods, mixed land uses, community spaces.

Von Thünen Model

• Closest to market: Dairy, fruits/vegetables (perishable, high value)

• Farther: Grains, livestock (less perishable, lower value)

Physiological Density vs. Other Densities

• Physiological: People per unit of arable (farmable) land.

• Arithmetic: People per total land area.

• Agricultural: Farmers per arable land.

Squatter Settlements
Informal housing areas, often on city outskirts, due to lack of affordable housing and rapid urbanization.

Population Pyramids
Show age and sex structure; can indicate growth trends, dependency ratios, and social needs.

Malthusian Theory
Argues that population growth will outpace food production, leading to shortages.