Unification of Germany

Section 11: Italy (1815–1871) and Germany (1815–1890) 

Germany pre-1815

Congress of Vienna 1814-1815

• Aims: re-establish balance of power, limit French power, compensate winners of the Napoleonic Wars and create “lasting peace”

• Germany was re-shaped:

  • Prussia was split into two halves, in the east and the west, with smaller states in the middle. Prussia was intended as a buffer for French and Russian expansion

  • 39 states, as opposed to the previous 250

  • Kingdom of Hanover was the most powerful state in the North. Strong links to Britain and enlargement of the state meant that it was seen as a potential buffer for Prussian expansion

  • Prussia established rail-links between the two states for shipping and military

  • Prussia received the Rhineland, which was rich in raw materials for industrialization

  • France, Britain and Austria formed the Triple Alliance for mutual defence of other states after 600,000 Russian troops occupied Poland

  • Prussia got ⅗ of Saxony, Poland remained independent but was ruled by Russia

  • Diet was formed: assembly of Bund with Austria as the permanent President, limiting German autonomy

  • France was allowed to keep the “rightful German clay” of Alsace-Lorraine/Elsass-Lothringen

Growth of Nationalism Between 1815 and 1848:

• Followers of philosophers Goethe and Schiller argued that the role of Government was to protect freedom of speech, religion and property, thus they wanted the Bund to grant constitutions to the 39 states

• Groups led by Fichte, Arndt and Jahn argued for a German state, with a government that was to preserve culture and language (Volksgeist). German culture was superior and no german could be free unless united under a German government.

• A 3rd group argued that the economic prosperity of Britain should be the ideal to strive towards. The 39 states, with their own tariff barriers, bureaucracies and 7 currencies hindered economic growth.

• Jahn and Hegel led the push for “Großpreußen” and “Kleindeutschland”, but there were others who felt that “Grossdeutschland”, a german state featuring Austria and other nations.

• 1817: 700 students and professors joined nationalist demonstrations in Wartburg

• 1818-1820: 6 South-German states adopted constitutions, granting representation and liberties

• July 1830: Revolutions began in France; spread to different European nations

  • “Romantic Revolutions”: social and liberal revolt

  • Charles X was overthrown, replaced by King Louis-Philippe, who introduced illiberal reforms such as indemnities and death penalty

  • There were “three glorious days” of revolution before the french military stepped in to own the libs

  • Their example was followed in Belgium (successful), Holland, Poland, Italy and Germany (all of which failed)

• 1832: Hambach, Bavaria had a nationalist demonstrations with 35,000 marchers, however protests were scattered and ineffective

• The constitutions were limited, as state rulers retained veto powers, upper aristocrats houses remained and votes were limited to the wealthy or disproportionately represented the wealthy

• Metternich halted progress:

  • 1819: Kotzebue, a german writer, murdered by a student. Metternich used this to convince the Diet that a breakdown in law and order was imminent. Carlsbad Decrees were passed, giving all 39 states power to censor all books over 20 pages and dismiss outspoken professors and students

  • 1834: panic after Hambach protests, Metternich does the same shit again

• Nationalism was censored:

  • List was sent to prison for 10 months and exiled after trying to get a public trial in Württemburg

  • Arndt was banned from teaching for 20 years

  • Jahn was imprisoned for 2 years and banned for 20 years from living in towns with secondary schools or universities

  • 1837: 7 professors, including Grimm Bros. and Dahlmann, protested the King of Hanover’s overthrow of the constitution of 1833. They were all fired from their universities.

Zollverein 1834:

• Prussia had 10.5 million people scattered throughout Germany with 67 different tariff barriers

• Prussia removed all internal customs barriers (free market)

• External tariffs amounted to approx. 10%

• Other states joined the Prussian system, leading to the creation of the Zollverein on 1 January 1834

• 18 states joined. Zollverein had 23.5 million people

• Decisions about customs were made at yearly congress. Unanimity was required

• Income obtained from tariffs was divided among member states

• 1841: 25 states; Zollverein formed a trade treaty with Belgium

• Economic unity was the beginning of a unified Germany

The 1848-49 Revolutions

Causes:

• Series of poor harvests in central Europe

• Dissatisfaction amongst peasantry

• Austria had been weakened and struggled to control its empire

• In Germany: growing liberalism, nationalism, desire for unification and constitutionalism

• The economic growth of Germany created growing confidence in independence and unification

• Unrest of 1830 had not disappeared - 1848 spread in same manner

• Economic growth, prior to recessions of 1847/48, had led to higher standards of living, but there was no safety net, therefore impacts of recession were exacerbated

• February 1848: French monarchy overthrown after demonstrations in Paris

• Peasant revolts in Germany: Saxony, Thuring, and Prussia

• Middle class demanded more press freedom and accountability from gov't

• March 1848: Collapse in authority due to:

  • Nationalism

  • Continued feudalism

  • Rise in population without safety net

  • Harsh conditions in factories

  • Industrialization threatened traditional production methods

  • Weakened Austria (Metternich fled to Britain on 13 March 1848 after riots)

• Frederik Wilhelm IV announced new Prussian constitution amid Austria’s struggles

Failure of the Revolutions:

• Since 1835: New railways spread all over Germany, except East Prussia

• Prussian Junkers needed rails to link farmlands via Berlin to rest of Europe

• 1840: Frederik WIlhelm IV, new King of Prussia, believed that he needed to be popular, therefore government should build railways

• Since 1815: Prussian constitution promised 5 times, never delivered

• United Diet refused to grant funds for rails without constitution

• 18 March 1848: Revolutions broke out all over Europe

• The King announced his decision to recall Diet to draft a constitution

• Riots in Berlin left the King surrounded in his palace

• 19 March: forced to pay respects to 216 citizens killed in riots

• Hapsburgs were busy with revolts in Hungary and Czechoslovakia, a new constitution being drawn up in Vienna and war in North Italy, therefore couldn’t interfere in Germany

• 22 February: Start of revolution in France, therefore they also couldn’t intervene

• 31 March - 3 April: meetings in Frankfurt. Parliament decided to hold elections in all 39 states

• 18 May: Elections. Diet replaced with new National Assembly

• 28 May: People’s house to be governed by universal male suffrage

  • Centralized gov’t but power to the 39 states with elected House members at local level to represent each state (federalism)

• Frankfurt assembly had no army, therefore relied on Prussia

  • August 1848: Prussian army withdrew from Schleswig due to foreign hostility. Pissed off radicals in Frankfurt

  • 26 September: Frankfurt radicals initiate new revolution, put down by Prussian army

• The Habsburgs started getting their shit together:

  • 17 June 1848: Bohemian Czechs were defeated; order restored

  • 31 October: army regained control of Vienna

  • 2 December: Francis Joseph became new emperor, with Prince Felix Schwarzenberg as new chief minister

• 3 April 1849: In desperation, the Frankfurt assembly offered crown of new “Kleindeutschland” to Frederik, in the hopes of protecting their revolution from Austria

• 21 April: Rejected

• 3 May: Radicals were driven out of Frankfurt, but they still encouraged revolution in rest of Germany. Dresden: 100 barricades erected. Baden: Republic proclaimed.

• 26 May: Proposed Erfurt Plan, a federation in which Prussia controlled army and foreign policy. Württemberg, Hanover, Saxony and Bavaria refused. Bismarck decried it, as he felt Prussia sacrificed too much power.

• June: Prussian army crushed all uprisings

• 80,000 of Baden’s 1.5 million population emigrated after revolution was ended

• August: Italy, Hungary defeated by Austria

• Tsar Nicholas backed Austria’s control over the Erfurt Plan

• May 1850: Diet restored

• 29 November 1850: Prussia agrees to rejoin Diet, restore 1815 settlement

The Road to the Unification of Germany (1851-1863)

• 5 April 1852: Prince Schwarzenberg died, depriving Austria of strong leadership

• 1853-56: Crimean War, Austria broke with its ally, Russia.

  • Threatened to join Britain and France if Tsar Nicholas I didn’t give in. 

  • Prussia and other German states not involved.

• 1859: Bismarck removed from Diet, made ambassador to Russia

• 29 April 1859: Austria enters war with Piedmont-Sardinia and France

  • Russia refused to assist Austria militarily

    • Mobilized 6 army corps on the Rhine, making Napoleon III withdraw without driving Austria out of North Italy

• January 1861: Prince Wilhelm I became King of Prussia as Frederik William IV was nuts at that point

• March 1862: Bismarck recalled from Russia; made ambassador to Paris in May

• 22 September 1862: Bismarck made Minister President by King WIlhelm I to push through military reform

  • Increase army from 150,000 to 220,000

  • Add 39 infantry and 10 cavalry regiments

  • 40,000 prussians drafted each year to be trained for 2 years, then spend 2 years in reserves. Wilhelm wanted 63,000, 3 years, and then 4 years in reserves.

• Landtag refused to pass Wilhelm’s reforms, as they sought checks and balances

• Bismarck tried to compromise, but after failing to do so, decided to ignore the Landtag and pass reform unilaterally

• Bismarck continued collecting taxes illegally to fund reforms, hoping to take over Germany with Prussia to end Landtag opposition

• 18 August 1862: Prussian treaty with France on behalf of Zollverein, essentially eliminating any chance of Austria joining

• 9 February 1863: Alvensleben Agreement with Russia, committed to help Russia put down Polish rebellion. Pissed off France, Britain, and german liberals

• With Austrian encouragement, South German states refused the treaty with France

• Bismarck threatened to break up Zollverein completely

  • October 1864: issue resolved, Zollverein was safe without Austria

• March 1863: King Frederick VII of Denmark issued new constitution, which would united Schleswig and Holstein and bring them closer to the danish kingdom

• Broke the 1852 Treaty of London: all powers to protect Denmark if the provinces retained their privileges

• 30% of the population was german, so Germany was not on board with the new constitution

• 15 November 1863: King Frederick died. New King, Christian IX, immediately prepared to enforce the new constitution

• The local assembly of Holstein refused to accept new King, demanding that Frederick of Augustenburg be made Duke of Schleswig and Holstein

• Bismarck saw an opportunity to bypass Landtag by using Prussian power to support this nationalist cause that had widespread german support

The Wars of Unification (1863 - 1871)

• Bismarck persuaded Austria to ally with Prussia to defeat Denmark

• December 1863: Austria and Prussia announced that they would be sending troops into Holstein and Schleswig to “protect the Treaty of London”

• 20 April 1864: Danes defeated at Battle of Duppel, however, Denmark refused to attend the international conference in London, therefore…

• 26 June: Prussia and Austria renewed the war to unite the provinces under the Duke of Augustenburg

• 30 October: the Danes, lacking foreign support, handed the provinces over and surrendered

• February 1865: Bismarck insisted that the army and navy of the Duke be under Prussian control and that he take his duchies into Zollverein.

• 20 August: Convention of Gastein, Austria took Holstein, Prussia took Schleswig (temporary peace)

• Prussia had a naval base in Holstein and Austria let them purchase the adjoining territory, Lauenburg. (collision course for Austro-Prussian War)

• October 1865: Bismarck met with Napoleon III to ensure that he wouldn’t aid Austria

• 8 April 1866: alliance with Italy. In return for Venetia they would attack Austria’s southern territories. 

• Bismarck also communicated with Hungarian nationalists, to see if they could attack Austria simultaneously

• 30 May 1866: Austrian ultimatum to force Bismarck to make a final agreement or bring the issue to the Diet

• 7 June: Prussia invaded Holstein

• 14 June: German confederation agreed to mobilize against Austria by a vote of 9-5

• 15 June: Prussia mobilized

• Austria, Hanover, Baden, Saxony, Hesse and Württemburg fought the Prussian forces

• By the end of June, Prussia had defeated Hesse, Hanover and Saxony.

• Bavarians had opted to keep their army separate from Austria (useless support)

• Prussia took 14 days to mobilize fully, Austria took 7 weeks

• 3 July 1866: Battle of Königgratz-Sadowa. Prussia defeated Austria. Benedek salvaged 180,000 troops, but they were scattered and disorganized. 

  • 1929 Prussian deaths

  • 5793 Austrian and Saxony deaths

• Bismarck realized that this battle had won the war for Prussia, shifting his focus to a lasting peace treaty, even as the King and other hawks wanted territory to be annexed

• 23 August 1866: Treaty of Prague. 

  • Austria lost no territory to Germany, but surrendered Venetia to Italy

  • Lost all further influence in Germany

  • Agreed to Prussian annexation of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, Frankfurt, Holstein and Schleswig

  • End of the Bund

  • North German Federation incorporating territories north of the Main river

  • South Germany had a seperate federation, however they signed a treaty with Bismarck in which they agreed that their railways and armies would fall under Prussian control if Germany was attacked

• 3 September 1866: Landtag passed Indemnities Bill, permitting all of Bismarck’s illegal taxes that he had been collecting since 1861

• Bismarck was beloved in the new Landtag

• 1 June 1867: new constitution of North German Federation

• Religious divide between the Protestant North and Catholic South

• France insisted that Prussia’s borders could not expand past the Main

• 29 August 1866: France proposed to allow unification if they were allowed to procure Luxembourg and Belgium

• 19 March: King of Holland agreed to sell both to France, but Prussia was outraged

• 5 April: King changed his mind amid Prussia anger

• September 1869: King of Spain offered throne to Leopold of Hohenzollern, son of a Prussian prince

• 6 July 1870: France sent a telegram, threatening force if Leopold did not withdraw

• 12 July: Prince Charles Anthony withdrew his son’s candidacy

• 13 July: France sends new telegram to King to demand he never be considered again

  • Bismarck edited the Ems Telegram from the King to France and leaked it to the press, making it appear that the King had humiliated France after gross disrespect

• 19 July 1870: France declared war

• Prussia, the Federation and South German troops accounted for 1.18 million, whereas France only had 500,000

• 2 September: France was already all but defeated, as its first army was trapped in a fortress in Metz, while its second army of 100,000 troops surrendered at Sedan

• French mobilization was a disaster

• 4 September: Yet another revolution in France, new government refused peace

• Paris was surrounded by 50 miles of Prussian siege lines

• Communications and transport were cut off

• 19 September: Paris was cut off from the rest of the world

• 2 January 1871: Bombardment of Paris began (400 shells per day at its peak)

• 26 January: Paris surrendered

• 10 May: Treaty of Frankfurt ended the war

• 18 January 1871: new German Empire declared

• Alsace-Lorraine was integrated into the German Empire

• Prussia occupied France until 5 billion francs in indemnities were paid

• 28,208 dead; 88,488 wounded in the Franco-Prussian War

Bismarck’s Domestic Policy

• Bismarck wanted to maintain the newly formed German state

• “Kulturkampf” -  the conflict between the German imperial government and the Roman Catholic Church from about 1872 to 1886, predominantly over the control of educational and ecclesiastical appointments

• Under the new constitution, Parliament was elected by universal male suffrage

Bismarck vs. the Catholic Church:

• Bismarck’s main goal was to limit the power of the Catholic Church and maintain the new German state

• 1871: The Catholic division of the Prussian Ministry of Culture was disbanded and Adalbert Falk, and anti-clerical, was made head of the ministry

• 1872: Jesuits were expelled from Germany

• March 1872: religious schools were forced to undergo official government inspection, all religious protections were removed from the constitution, and state subsidies for the Catholic Church were ended

• 1873: the “May Laws” were enacted:

  • Giving the state control of education

  • Civil appointment of bishops

  • Limited power of the papacy

• Prussia became a police state for Catholics

  • Archbishops of Cologne and Posen were imprisoned

  • 1400 parishes were left without priests

• The May Laws made a martyr of the Catholic Church, and generally pissed of liberals, Catholics, and Austria

• 1874: Church refused to accept May Laws, to which Prussia responded by giving government power to expel clerics

• Catholics were convinced that they needed their own party to represent them, leading to the rise of the Zentrum party, which won 95 of the 100 seats needed for a Reichstag majority

• 1875: letter from the Pope declared measures invalid 

• 1878: Pope Pius IX died; replaced by Leo XIII, who reached out to the Kaiser for friendly relations

• 1879: Falk was dismissed and most May Laws were repealed

• Bismarck recognized that he had overestimated the Catholic threat and, more importantly, needed the Zentrum votes to pass tariffs

Bismarck’s Economic Policy:

• Investment in tech development

  • 1876: internal combustion engine 

  • 1879: electric train

  • 1881: telephone network in Berlin

• 1875: 45,000 km of rails, 47.8 million tons of coal, and 1.76 million tons of iron

• 1900: 74,800 km of rails, 142.6 million tons of coal, and 7.5 million tons of iron

• General production was up 213%;

• He initially wanted free trade, as the National Liberals controlled Parliament

• 1879: abandoned free trade for tariffs, because trade wars are good and easy to win

  • Support of Zentrum and conservative parties

  • Bismarck abandoned his political alliance with the libs to get his goals

  • The tariffs increased state revenue, allowing for the army to be well funded

Bismarck and the Socialists:

• Rapid industrialization and population growth led to a rise in Socialism, which Bismarck wasn’t on board with

• 1878: 12 Socialist Party reps. in Parliament

  • There were also two attempted assassinations of the Kaiser in 1878. Coincidence? Bismarck didn’t think so.

• Because correlation equal causation, Bismarck introduced anti-Socialist laws in 1878

• Of the 47 socialist papers, 45 were banned

• Stripped of right to assembly

• November 28: Minor state of siege declared in Berlin, 67 social democrats expelled

• April 2, 1886: Reichstag votes 173 to 146 to renew the anti-socialist laws

• 12 January 1912: Socialists win their first ever majority in Reichstag

• 1883: Bismarck introduced compensation to sick workers

• 1884: accident insurance policy provided by the state

• 1889: Old-age pension scheme started

• Bismarck introduced one of the strongest social welfare states in Europe

Historiography

21.“Garibaldi was the most significant leader in the process of Italian unification.” Discuss.

22. Evaluate the importance of Bismarck’s policies in the achievement of German unification by 1871.

21. Evaluate Metternich’s role in the growth of nationalism and liberalism in Italy between 1815 and 1848. 22. Discuss the successes and failures of Bismarck’s domestic policies

21. Examine the impact of the Congress of Vienna on Germany. 

22. “Cavour was the most significant figure in the unification of Italy by 1871.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

2021 nov

21. “Cavour’s political skills were the most significant factor in the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy by 1861.” Discuss. 

22. To what extent did the establishment of the Zollverein lead to the decline of Austria and the rise of Prussia?

2022 may

21. “Foreign intervention was the main cause of the defeat of the 1848–1849 Revolutions in Italy.” Discuss. 

22. Examine the role of Prussia in the consolidation of the new German state after 1871

2022 nov

“Regional discontent was the main cause of the 1848–1849 Revolutions in Italy.” To what extent do you agree with this statement? 

22. Examine the contribution of diplomacy and militarism to the unification of Germany