Untitled Flashcards Set

Anthro In anthropology, "holism" refers to the approach of studying a culture by considering all its interconnected parts, 

"comparison" means analyzing different cultures by comparing them to each other,

 "dynamism" emphasizes the ever-changing nature of cultures, and 

"fieldwork" is the practice of conducting research by directly observing and interacting with people in their natural environment

Six steps to humanness: bipedalism, nonhoning chewing, material culture and tools,

speech, hunting, domesticated foods

Social learning - the process of learning new behaviors by observing and imitating others

Empiricism - the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience. 

Scientific method: observation, hypothesis, independent/dependent variable,

Support/rejection of hypothesis (role of scientific community in revising knowledge over

time)

Theory vs. Law - a theory explains why something happens, while a law describes what happens under certain conditions

Great chain of being - a hierarchical concept, prevalent in medieval thought, that views all of creation as an ordered chain with God at the top, followed by angels, humans, animals, plants, and minerals at the bottom

Judeo-Christian Young Earth - a belief that the Earth and life were created by God in a recent period of time, as opposed to the scientific consensus that the Earth is billions of years old

Al-Jahiz - One of his most famous works is the pioneering Kitab al-Hayawan, or Book of Animals

Ibn al-Haytham -  the earliest use of the camera obscura and pinhole camera

European enlightenment - studying human behavior and societies across the globe, often focusing on concepts like "natural history of man" and attempting to understand human diversity through reason and observation, laying the foundation for modern anthropology as a discipline;

Western evolutionary thought, 17th-19th c.: scientific method, taxonomy, species,

binomial nomenclature, comparative anatomy, extinction/catastrophism

Geology, "deep time" refers to the concept that Earth's history spans vast periods of time, far exceeding human comprehension, while 

"uniformitarianism" is the principle that the geological processes we observe today are the same ones that operated throughout Earth's history, allowing us to interpret the past based on present observations

Lamarckian traits (“Acquired characteristics”), Malthus’ carrying capacity - for characters acquired as the result of new habits to be passed via sexual reproduction from one generation to the next, they needed to have been acquired by both parents

Charles Darwin, adaptation, natural selection, and evolution (“Descent with

modification”) - species change over time and diversify from a common ancestor through the process of natural selection, where organisms with advantageous adaptations are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those beneficial traits to their offspring, leading to gradual changes within a population across generations

Essential molecules: proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids - collectively known as "macromolecules"

Cells: organelles, nucleus, mitochondria, cytoplasm, DNA - organelles (small structures within the cell with specific functions), the nucleus (which houses the cell's DNA), mitochondria (the "powerhouse" of the cell responsible for energy production), cytoplasm (the jelly-like fluid where organelles are suspended), and DNA (the genetic material found primarily within the nucleus)

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus, while eukaryotes are cells that have a nucleus.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): discovery, purpose, structure (double helix; nitrogen base - his structure was famously discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick, allowing for DNA to replicate and transmit genetic information across generations

pairs - adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G); nucleotide; histones)- base pairs

Gene, genetics, genomics, genome - A gene is a specific segment of DNA that carries instructions for a particular trait, while genetics is the study of genes and how traits are passed from one generation to the next; genomics refers to the study of an organism's entire set of genes (the genome), analyzing all genes and their interactions, while a genome is the complete set of DNA in an organism, encompassing all its genes

Human genome project - Determine the base pairs that make up human DNA

• Identify, map, and sequence all of the human genome's genes

"homologous chromosomes" refer to a pair of chromosomes that carry the same genes, one from each parent; a "karyotype" is the complete set of chromosomes in an organism, usually visualized as a picture of all chromosome pairs arranged in order; "autosomes" are chromosomes that are not involved in sex determination, while "sex chromosomes" are the chromosomes that determine an individual's sex 

DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an exact copy of its DNA before dividing. During this process, errors can occur that lead to mutations in the newly synthesized DNA strand

"mitosis" refers to the process that produces two identical diploid daughter cells from a single parent cell, typically occurring in somatic cells (body cells), while "meiosis" produces four haploid daughter cells (gametes) with half the chromosome number

"Recombination" refers to the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes during meiosis, also known as "crossing over," which results in new combinations of alleles and contributes to genetic diversity; a "haplotype" is a set of alleles inherited together on a single chromosome from one parent, while a "haplogroup" is a collection of related haplotypes sharing a common ancestor with a specific genetic mutation

Problems during meiosis: translocation, nondisjunction, aneuploid, monosomy, trisomy

Protein synthesis: protein, amino acid, RNA (uracil (U) replaces thymine), transcription, - the process of creating proteins within a cell, where amino acids are linked together in a specific sequence based on instructions carried by a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, which is generated through transcription from DNA, where uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) as a base pair in the RNA molecule

RNA processing (introns/exons), translation - involving the removal of non-coding sequences called "introns" and the joining of coding sequences called "exons", is a crucial step before translation, which is the process where the genetic information in mRNA is converted into a protein by ribosomes, forming a chain of amino acids based on the codon sequence in the mRNA

Mendelian genetics: law of independent assortment, law of segregation - the "law of segregation" states that during gamete formation, the two alleles for a gene separate from each other, meaning each gamete only receives one allele from a pair, while the "law of independent assortment" states that the inheritance of one gene is independent of the inheritance of another gene, meaning different traits are passed on separately from each other during gamete formation. 

• Allele: A variant form of a gene, representing different versions of a trait, where each individual inherits two alleles for a specific gene, one from each parent. 

Genotype:The genetic makeup of an organism, specifically the combination of alleles an individual carries for a particular trait, represented by letter combinations (e.g., "Bb"). 

• Phenotype:
  The observable physical characteristics of an organism resulting from its genotype, like eye color or flower color. 

• Dominant:
  An allele that is expressed in the phenotype even when paired with a recessive allele, meaning only one copy of the dominant allele is needed to show the dominant trait. 

• Recessive:
  An allele that is only expressed in the phenotype when both copies of the allele are present, meaning it is masked by the dominant allele if present. 

• Homozygous:
  When an individual has two identical alleles for a specific gene (e.g., "BB" or "bb"). 

• Heterozygous:
  When an individual has two different alleles for a specific gene (e.g., "Bb"). 

• Punnett Square:
  A diagram used to predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring from a cross between two parents, showing all possible allele combinations based on the parents' genotypes

More complex than Mendelian traits: Incomplete dominance/codominance,

penetrance, polygenic traits

ABO blood types: antigens, antibodies - A and B antigens on red blood cells, and the presence of anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasm

Pedigree, genetic disorders, environmental factors - Pedigrees can help identify patterns of inheritance and shared environmental risk factors for genetic disorders

Modern synthesis - a theory that combines Darwin's theory of evolution with Mendel's ideas on genetics

Population genetics - the study of how genes and alleles vary within and between populations

Epigenetics -  the study of how environmental factors and behaviors can change how genes are turned on or off.

Microevolution vs. macroevolution - Microevolution is small genetic changes that occur within a population over a short period of time, while macroevolution is large-scale changes that occur over a long period of time across multiple species

Breeding population, gene pool, deme In population genetics, a "breeding population" refers to the group of individuals within a species that are capable of interbreeding and producing offspring, essentially the actively reproducing segment of a population; a "gene pool" is the collective genetic material (all alleles) present within that breeding population; and a "deme" is a smaller, localized sub-population within a larger population where individuals are most likely to interbreed with each other, essentially a local breeding unit sharing a specific gene pool

Reproductive fitness - an individual's ability to successfully reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation

Evolution as change in allele frequencies - a shift in the relative abundance of different versions of a gene (alleles) within a population over time

Lactase persistence - a genetic trait that allows individuals to continue producing and digesting lactose, the sugar found in milk, into adulthood

Polymorphisms, balanced polymorphism -Polymorphism is when there are multiple forms of a trait in a population, while balanced polymorphism is when these forms are maintained in stable frequencies

Sickle-cell trait (anemia) and other hemolytic disorders - sickle cell gene, causing their red blood cells 

PTC tasting - a genetic trait that determines whether someone can taste a bitter chemica

Forces of evolution: mutation, genetic drift, population bottleneck, founder effect,

reproductive isolation, gene flow, natural selection, sexual selection

Mutation: Induced mutation, point mutation, synonymous point mutation, non-

synonymous point mutation, frameshift mutation, transposable elements (transposons)

Genetic drift: endogamous, exogamous - "endogamous" refers to a population where individuals primarily mate within their own group, leading to increased chances of genetic drift due to reduced genetic diversity, while "exogamous" describes a population where individuals mate outside their group, which generally reduces the impact of genetic drift by introducing new genetic variations

Natural selection: positive selection, directional selection, balancing/stabilizing

selection, disruptive/diversifying selection

Equilibrium; Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium - a principle that states that a population's genetic variation remains constant over generations

Species: Viable, fertile, subspecies

Adaptive radiation - a process in which a single species rapidly diversifies into multiple new species

Ecological niche - the role of a species in its environment, including how it survives, reproduces, and interacts with other species

Speciation: allopatric, sympatric

Convergent evolution - when unrelated species independently evolve similar traits or behaviors

Primates: shared characteristics

Phylogeny, grade, clade - used to classify organisms and show evolutionary relationships

Taxonomy - he science of classifying organisms, including animals, plants, and microorganisms

Traits: primitive, derived, generalized, specialized

Arboreal adaptation: separate joints, enhanced touch, enhanced vision, reduced

smell/hearing

Locomotion: vertical clinging and leaping, quadrupedalism, brachiation, bipedalism

Dietary plasticity: primitive dental characteristics, reduced number of teeth, dental

specializations and functions

Diet: frugivores, insectivores, folivores

Parental investment: fewer offspring, social/economic investment, intelligence, large

brain relative to body size

Primate taxonomy (general groups and characteristics): Suborder Strepsirrhini, Suborder

Haplorrhini, Suborder Haplorrhini (Tarsiiformes, Platyrrhini, Catarrhini), Superfamily

Cercopithecoidea, Superfamily Hominoidea,

Primatology- the study of the behavior, biology, evolution, and taxonomy of nonhuman primate

Ethnoprimatology - he study of how humans and non-human primates interact

Primate diets: abundance, seasonality, distribution, quality

Community ecology: niche, conspecific/heterospecific

Benefits of group life: cooperation, altruism, kin selection

Social systems: solitary, single-male single-female, single-male multi-female, multi-male

multi-female, fission-fusion, multi-male single-female

Mating systems: polygyny, monogamy, polygamy, polyandry

Sex-related dispersal, dominance hierarchy

Sexual selection: intrasexual selection, intersexual selection

Communication: vocal, visual, olfactory, tactile

Primates and culture: hunting, tool use, social behavior

Primate conservation: endangered/vulnerable

Importance of primates to community ecology and mutualism

Threats to primates: hunting, poaching, wildlife trade, disease, habitat loss,

fragmentation, degradation, climate change

Paleontology - concerned with fossil animals and plants

Eons, eras, periods, epochs - units of time used in the geologic time scale to organize Earth's history

Continental drift and species movement - species movement by causing geographic isolation as continents drift apart, leading to different evolutionary paths for species that were once connected on a single landmass

Taphonomy - that deals with the processes of fossilization.

Strata: sedimentary and igneous rock

Fossilization: lithification, permineralization, petrifaction, silification, pyritization

Fossils: plants, animals, humans vs. trace fossils: footprints, coprolites, bezoars

Representation in the fossil record

Relative dating: law of superposition, biostratigraphy, index fossils, cultural dating,

chemical dating, fluorine dating

Chronometric (absolute) dating

Radiometric dating: unstable (radioactive) isotopes, radioactive decay, radiocarbon

dating, potassium-argon dating, uranium series dating

Non-radiometric chronometric dating methods: fission track, electron spin resonance,

amino acid, genetic, dendrochronology

Environmental reconstruction: sediment cores, foraminifera, stable isotopes of oxygen

(temperature), nitrogen and carbon (diet), C3 and C4 plants, setting for human evolution

Primate origin hypotheses: arboreal, visual predation, angiosperm-primate coevolution

Diffuse coevolution

Phylogeny: clade, node, stem, basal, crown

Plesiomorphic - something is ancestral or "old-featured

Plesiadapiforms: Carpolestes - extinct primate-like mammal that lived in North America during the late Paleocene epoch

Purgatorius - squirrel looking ancessitor 

Euprimates: adapoids, omomyids - early primates, that lived during the Eocene Epoch

Anthropoid origins theories: adapoid, omomyid, tarsier

Anthropoid fossils: Fayum, Aegyptopithecus, Eosimiids, Amphipithecids

Platyrrhine Dispersal to South America - Platyrrhines, also known as New World monkeys, likely dispersed to South America from Africa during the Eocene epoch on a raft of vegetation

Miocene apes and monkeys - many fossil relatives of modern apes and monkeys appeared in Africa and Eurasi