Part I: Introduction
Overview of the Text
This introductory text is designed for beginning students to philosophy.
Several approaches exist for introducing philosophy similar to art or music.
The emphasis can be on:
Training to think like a philosopher (method approach).
Examining content and focusing on various philosophical problems (content approach).
The Central Problem
The text focuses primarily on the problem of understanding human nature.
Presents various solutions called "Theories of Human Nature" to this philosophical question.
The Nature of Philosophy
Importance of defining philosophy and understanding what philosophers do.
Some views on human nature will stem from non-Western philosophies.
However, Western philosophy and thought have substantial influence.
Definition
The word "philosophy" derives from Greek words "philein" (to love) and "sophia" (wisdom).
Philosophy originally meant the love of wisdom, focusing on a comprehensive understanding of:
Nature
Society
Morality
Life and death
Wisdom was considered more valuable than practical knowledge.
Contemporary Meaning
Modern philosophers distinguish between knowledge of the world (factual knowledge) and knowledge of perception (conceptual questions).
Philosophers focus on:
Ideas and concepts rather than empirical observations.
Basic beliefs, which are expressed in declarative sentences.
Subject Matter of Philosophy
Definitions and categories of beliefs:
Belief: A thought that can be expressed in a declarative sentence.
Basic Beliefs: Those whose truth or falsity affects many other beliefs.
Example: The belief in God (if false, undermines many religious practices).
Types of Beliefs
Categories of beliefs include:
Commonsense beliefs
Scientific beliefs
Moral beliefs
Hidden Beliefs
Basic beliefs can either be conscious (e.g., moral beliefs) or subconscious (outside daily thoughts and often unquestioned).
Philosophical Inquiry
Philosophical thinking involves:
Awareness of competing basic beliefs.
Clarity about concepts related to problems.
Understanding potential solutions and supporting arguments.
Method of Philosophy
Philosophical inquiry is a problem-solving process:
Requires clarity on the nature of the problem and concepts involved.
Philosophers argue rationally for the superiority of their views over competing ones.
Philosophical Problems vs. Scientific Problems
Scientific problems: resolved by observation and experimentation.
Philosophical problems: arise after known facts and require interpretation.
Example: Determining the cause of the universe's order (intelligent design vs. natural evolution).
Divisions of Philosophy
Major branches include:
Metaphysics: Beliefs about existence and reality.
Epistemology: Nature and justification of knowledge.
Philosophy of mind: The nature of persons and identity.
Philosophy of religion: Examining existence and nature of God.
Ethics: Examining right and wrong, good and evil.
Social and political philosophy: Government authority and justice.
Logic: Methods of reasoning.
Other fields: Philosophy of science, mathematics, language, history, and art.
Historical Periods of Philosophy
Ancient Period (6th century B.C.E. to 300 C.E.):
Notable philosophers: Thales, Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.
Medieval Period (St. Augustine to 1600):
Philosophy often aligned with theology.
Figures: St. Augustine, St. Anselm, St. Thomas Aquinas.
Modern Period (1600 to 1900):
Increased reliance on reason over faith.
Key figures: Descartes, Kant, Hegel, Locke, Hume.
Contemporary Period (1900 to present):
Movements: Existentialism, analytic philosophy, pragmatism.
Notable figures: Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Sartre, Wittgenstein, James.
The Value of Philosophy
Why it’s important to study philosophy:
Necessity: Shaping meaningful experiences and behaviors through worldviews.
Self-Knowledge: Promoting understanding of one's beliefs and values.
Expanding Perspective: Encouraging critical thinking beyond common prejudices.
Practical Value: Boosts skills relevant to many professions and standardized tests.
Intrinsic Enjoyment: Philosophy offers intellectual stimulation.
The Question of Human Nature
Introduction to Human Nature
Central philosophical problem: "What is human nature?"
Focus on shared innate tendencies (physical, emotional, reasoned) of humans.
Commonsense Question
Differences between animal and human nature observations.
Lack of consensus on universal traits among human beings:
Claims vary from innate selfishness to altruism, rationality vs. desire-driven actions.
A Scientific Perspective
Increasing scientific scrutiny on human nature by various disciplines (e.g., cognitive science, psychology).
Interaction of nature (innate attributes) and nurture (cultural influences).
Philosophical Inquiry into Human Nature
Additional philosophical questions surround interpretation of scientific findings:
Freedom, morality, cultural influences, especially how beliefs shape understanding.
Evaluating Philosophical Theories
Theories are interrelated beliefs interpreting facts about human nature.
Evaluation involves forming reasoned judgments similar to legal discernment.
Universality
Theories should account for all relevant facts.
Consistency
Theories need to be internally consistent and align with accepted facts and scientific theories.
Simplicity
Preference for theories using fewer explanatory entities without unnecessary complications.
Descriptive vs. Normative Theories
Descriptive Theories: Focused on describing what human nature is.
Normative Theories: Concerned with what humans can or ought to be, often philosophical or religious in nature.
Structure of This Text
Each chapter includes:
An introduction to the author.
Examination of worldview and beliefs.
Core question about human nature.
Consequences of adopting a certain view of human nature.
Selected readings from discussed authors.
Supplementary Resources
A website will provide additional discussions and materials on unaddressed topics and theories pertaining to human nature. Suggestions for contributions are invited by the author.