Chapter 9 lifespan canvas notes

CHAPTER 9: EMERGING ADULTHOOD

CONTENTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1

KEY TERMS 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE 3

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES 18

CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT 22

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS 23

Revel VIDEOS 25

JOURNAL PROMPTS AND SHARED WRITING QUESTIONS 25

HANDOUTS 27

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Section 1

9.1 Name the four revolutions that contributed to the rise of emerging adulthood, and the five developmental features distinctive to emerging adulthood.

9.2 Describe some of the ways emerging adulthood varies among cultures, with specific reference to European and Asian countries.

9.3 Name the indicators that emerging adulthood is a period of peak physical functioning.

9.4 Summarize college students’ sleep patterns and the main elements of sleep hygiene.

9.5 Explain why young drivers have the highest rates of crashes, and name the most effective approach to reducing those rates.

9.6 Explain why rates of substance use peak in the early 20s and then decline.

9.7 Identify the protective factors associated with resilience and explain why emerging adulthood may be a critical period for resilience.

Section 2

9.8 Compare and contrast the tertiary education systems and college experiences in developed countries and name the various long-term benefits of tertiary education.

9.9 Analyze the potential advantages and disadvantages of online learning in delivering tertiary education.

9.10 Describe the transition from school to full-time work, and explain why unemployment rates among emerging adults are higher than for older adults.

Section 3

9.11 Describe the course of self-esteem from adolescence through emerging adulthood and explain the reasons for this pattern.

9.12 Describe the various forms identity development can take in emerging adulthood, and consider patterns of cultural and ethnic identity.

9.13 Summarize the changes in American gender beliefs in recent decades and include findings from research on gender stereotypes among college students.

9.14 Summarize the religious beliefs and practices of American emerging adults, and contrast them with young Europeans.

9.15 Explain why emerging adults have often been at the forefront of political movements, and contrast this with their involvement in conventional politics.

9.16 Describe patterns of home-leaving in the United States and Europe and how this transition influences relations with parents.

9.17 Describe the role of intimacy in emerging adults’ friendships and the most common activities of emerging adult friends.

9.18 Explain how romantic relationships and sexual behavior change during emerging adulthood.

9.19 Explain how emerging adults use the social media and texting to maintain social contacts.

KEY TERMS

Section 1

knowledge economy

VO2 max

cardiac output

morningness

eveningness

social control

graduated driver licensing (GDL)

binge drinking

unstructured socializing

resilience

protective factors

Section 2

tertiary education

online learning

blended learning

unemployment

Section 3

identity versus identity confusion

identity status model

bicultural identity

stereotype

cohabitation

sexually transmitted infection (STI)

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Section 1: Physical Development

A. The Emergence of Emerging Adulthood

1. Traditional stage models no longer fit the pattern of development that most people experience, especially in developed countries.

a. The 20s are now a time marked by completion of education followed by multiple job changes.

b. Most people marry and become parents in their late 20s or early 30s rather than in their early 20s.

2. Scholars increasingly recognize a new life stage between adolescence and young adulthood: emerging adulthood.

a. Emerging adulthood lasts roughly from age 18 to about age 25.

b. The end of emerging adulthood is difficult to specify but could be defined as an age when people first “feel adult.”

3. Five Features

LO 9.1 Name the four revolutions that contributed to the rise of emerging adulthood, and the five developmental features distinctive to emerging adulthood.

a. The foundation for emerging adulthood was laid by four revolutionary changes that have taken place since the 1960s: the Technology Revolution, the Sexual Revolution, the Women’s Movement, and the Youth Movement.

i. The Technology Revolution has entailed developed countries shifting from a manufacturing economy to a knowledge economy requiring information and technology skills in the last 50 years. In the United States, participation in tertiary education has risen dramatically over the past 50 years; most people finish their education before taking on adult commitments.

ii. The Sexual Revolution was sparked in 1960 by the Food and Drug Administration’s approval of the birth control pill for contraceptive use, which in turn mean that young people no longer had to enter marriage to have a regular sexual relationship.

iii. The Women’s Movement of the 1960s and 1970s expanded educational and occupational opportunities available to young women.

iv. The Youth Movement, also in the 1960s and 1970s, denigrated adulthood and exalted being, acting, and feeling young. Young people of the 1950s were eager to enter adulthood; young people of today see adulthood and its obligation as perils to be avoided.

b. There are five distinct characteristics that differentiate emerging adulthood from adolescence and adulthood. Emerging adulthood is:

i. The age of identity explorations in which young people try out various possibilities before committing to an enduring course of action, especially in love and work. Although this begins in adolescence, as noted by Erikson, it actually continues into emerging adulthood.

ii. The time of instability, because they may often move from one residence to another, try different schools or majors, and fall in and out of love

iii. The self-focused stage because they are learning what it means to make independent decisions and to be self-sufficient

iv. The time of feeling in-between because they view themselves as in transition

v. The time of possibilities when many different futures remain possible because they have high hopes, great expectations, and much optimism. It is a time when dramatic changes are possible. They can reinvent themselves.

4. The Cultural Context of Emerging Adulthood

LO 9.2 Describe some of the ways emerging adulthood varies among cultures, with specific reference to European and Asian countries.

a. Emerging adulthood exists as a life stage across developed countries but forms vary by world region.

i. Europe has the longest and most leisurely period of emerging adulthood compared to other countries.

ii. The focus of emerging adulthood in Western cultures is on individualism and self-development. However, in Asian cultures, although they explore their identity and self-development, it is restricted by their obligations, mainly to their parents.

iii. The criterion for achieving adulthood varies by culture as well. In the United States and most of Europe, adulthood comes when financial independence is attained. In Asian cultures, one of the most important criteria for achieving adulthood is the capable of supporting parents financially.

b. Emerging adulthood is experienced in many different ways, in part based on whether young people attend college or go to work and on their cultures’ tolerance for premarital sex and cohabitation.

c. Emerging adulthood is not likely to be a part of the pattern of development in rural areas of developing countries, but it is becoming more widespread due to economic globalization in the urban areas of developing countries.

d. It does vary in length and content both within and between countries.

B. Physical Changes of Emerging Adulthood

1. The Peak of Physical Functioning

LO 9.3 Name the indicators that emerging adulthood is a period of peak physical functioning.

a. Emerging adulthood is the stage in which the body is at its peak of health, strength, and vigor.

b. Physical stamina is measured as maximum oxygen uptake or V02 max, whereas cardiac output is measured as quantity of blood flow from the heart.

c. Individuals are less susceptible to physical illness as they tend to be very healthy.

d. However, lifestyle choices can undermine health, such as poor nutrition, lack of sleep, and stress from having multiple roles.

e. This age group is also most likely to get diseases, injuries, and even death due to behavior; heightened risks include automobile accidents, substance abuse, and indiscriminate sexual activities.

2. Sleep Patterns and Deficits

LO 9.4 Summarize college students’ sleep patterns and the main elements of sleep hygiene.

a. Sleep research has focused on college students in developed countries.

b. They tend to have sleep patterns that impair their cognitive functioning and emotional well-being.

c. College students report having delayed sleep phase syndrome; this occurs when they accumulate sleep debt during the week and try to alleviate it by sleeping in on weekends and holidays.

d. Many report having sleep disturbances. One reason is that emerging adults show a preference for going to bed late and getting up late. This is referred to as eveningness. Factors that contribute to eveningness include partying and studying late or all night. For young children and adults, their preference is going to bed and getting up early. This is called morningness. These preferences change with age due to changes in levels of hormones, specifically growth hormone.

e. To have good sleep hygiene, you should follow a set sleep schedule, get regular exercise, limit caffeine and alcohol, and turn off all technology at night. However, most emerging adults do not follow these recommendations.

C. Risk Behavior and Health Issues

1. Risky behaviors usually reach their peak during emerging adulthood likely because this period is one of low social control.

2. Injuries and Fatalities: Automobile Accidents

LO 9.5 Explain why young drivers have the highest rates of crashes, and name the most effective approach to reducing those rates.

a. In the United States, youths 16–24 have the highest rates of auto accidents, injuries, and fatalities of any age group.

b. Driver characteristics, such as inexperience, and the driving environment, such as friends’ influence, interact with the socialization environment to result in driving behavior that can lead to crashes resulting in injuries or fatalities.

i. Young males are especially likely to drive at excessive speeds, tailgate, violate traffic signals, and take more risks.

ii. Young drivers are more likely than older drivers to combine texting and driving.

c. These negative outcomes can be limited with positive parental monitoring of adolescents’ driving and, foremost, by using a graduated driver licensing (GDL) program that restricts driving privileges.

3. Substance Use and Abuse

LO 9.6 Explain why rates of substance use peak in the early 20s and then decline.

a. The National Monitoring the Future study, which has followed several American cohorts from high school through middle age, shows that substance use of all kinds rises through the late teens and peaks in the early 20s before declining in the late 20s.

b. This includes marijuana use and binge drinking (5+ drinks in a row for men and 4 for women).

c. Substance use is also high among emerging adults in other developed countries.

d. Higher rates of substance use may be explained in terms of propensity and opportunity.

i. Propensity is the motivation to behave deviantly, and, when it is combined with opportunity as a result of excessive unstructured socializing, substance use increases.

ii. Having too much free time is also related to other types of deviant behavior, such as crime and dangerous driving.

4. Resilience

LO 9.7 Identify the protective factors associated with resilience and explain why emerging adulthood may be a critical period for resilience.

a. Resilience is defined as overcoming adverse environmental circumstances and achieving healthy development despite those circumstances.

b. Resilience is promoted by protective factors that enable people to overcome the risks in their lives.

i. High intelligence

ii. One caring adult

iii. A healthy school environment

iv. Religious beliefs and practices

c. The Kauai study in Hawaii focused on a high-risk group of children who had four or more risk factors; among this group was a resilient subgroup

i. The resilient subgroup showed good social and academic functioning and few behavior problems by ages 10 to 18. These adolescents were found to benefit from several protective factors.

ii. A surprise finding was that many in the resilient category in adolescence turned out to be resilient in emerging adulthood.

d. Research on resilience in emerging adulthood suggests the key is “planful competence,” including realistic goal setting, dependability, and self-control.

II. Section 2: Cognitive Development

A. Education and Work

1. Tertiary Education: College, University, and Training Programs

LO 9.8 Compare the tertiary education systems and college experiences in developed countries, and name the various long-term benefits of tertiary education.

a. Tertiary education is education or training beyond secondary school.

b. A century ago only about 10% of individuals in developed countries attended college and they were mostly men. Now, a majority of emerging adults across developed countries, both men and women, obtain tertiary education.

c. Tertiary education is structured differently based on where you live.

i. In Europe, students specialize in one topic area from the time they enter university.

1) Traditionally, European education lasted 6 or more years, culminating in what would be an advanced degree in the United States.

2) The system has changed recently to match the American system, with separate bachelor’s master’s, and doctoral degrees.

ii. Other countries, such as the United States, Canada, and Japan, begin with 2 years of general education that allows for identity exploration.

iii. In Japan, students in college can finally take a little break. Their tertiary education is relaxed and undemanding compared to their secondary schooling and cram schools. This allows for more leisure and a life with few responsibilities.

d. In the United States, it takes an average of 6 years for students to obtain a bachelor’s degree.

i. Their college years may be extended because they switched majors, added a minor, or took on an internship or study-abroad program.

ii. Financial concerns due to increased tuition rates and a lack of financial aid are also likely to increase the time it takes to earn a college degree and may prevent graduation.

e. As a society, tertiary education is beneficial by aiding economic growth. Individually, educated persons have higher earnings, occupational status, and better career achievement over time.

f. American college students are generally pleased with the quality of the education they receive, and most college grads are well aware of the benefits of having a degree.

2. Tertiary Education’s (Possible) Digital Future: Online Learning

LO 9.9 Analyze the potential advantages and disadvantages of online learning in delivering tertiary education.

a. There are many proposals for making tertiary education better suited to the 21st century.

b. One idea is online learning, in which all or most of the course content is delivered electronically.

c. Advantages include instructors and students being able to communicate at any time and assessments taking forms other than scheduled exams. In addition, instructors can develop innovated content delivery methods. Last, online learning may vastly reduce the costs of obtaining a college degree.

d. Disadvantages include the great deal of personal motivation, focus, and self-discipline required from students, as well as the effectiveness and administration of evaluation and assessment.

e. Traditional college classrooms offer interpersonal advantages not found in online learning: college students learn to organize their time, work with others, and carry out responsibilities.

f. Blending learning, involving students learning partly online and partly in the classroom, is a promising approach.

3. Finding Adult Work

LO 9.10 Describe the transition from school to full-time work, and explain why unemployment rates among emerging adults are higher than for older adults.

a. The Transition to Work

i. Emerging adults seek identity-based employment; they tend to go through many different jobs looking for the right fit for their identity.

ii. On the road to a stable, long-term job, many work brief, low-paying, dreary jobs without a plan, meandering or drifting, or even floundering, through employment.

iii. Obtaining a tertiary education in developed countries is important to finding a job that will pay well and keeping that job.

iv. Those who do not have a tertiary education are likely to have lower pay and higher unemployment. Researchers focusing on the United States have found that six new basic skills are necessary for success at new jobs that are available to high school graduates:

1) Reading at a 9th-grade level or higher

2) Doing math at a 9th-grade level or higher

3) Solving semistructured problems

4) Communicating orally and in writing

5) Using a computer for word processing and other tasks

6) Collaborating in diverse groups

v. Researchers focusing on six different countries (Chile, China, India, Mexico, Singapore, and the United States) have defined core competencies and skills young people need for the workforce and how those countries are adjusting curricula to teach those competencies and skills.

b. Unemployment

i. In Europe and the United States, unemployment in emerging adulthood is twice as high as for older adults.

ii. Unemployment applies to people who are not in school, are not working, and are actively looking for a job.

iii. In the United States, more than half of high school dropouts ages 18 to 21 are unemployed.

iv. Unemployment is especially high among African Americans because they tend to obtain less education than young Asian Americans, Latinos, or Whites do.

III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development

A. Emotional and Self-Development

1. Self-Esteem

LO 9.11 Describe the course of self-esteem from adolescence through emerging adulthood and explain the reasons for this pattern.

a. Self-esteem often rises for emerging adults, because they move beyond some of the difficult issues of adolescence, such as having an awkward appearance and judgmental peers. In addition, feeling accepted and approved by parents contributes to self-esteem.

b. They have more control over the social contexts of everyday life.

2. Identity Development

LO 9.12 Describe the various forms identity development can take in emerging adulthood, and consider patterns of cultural and ethnic identity.

a. Scholars now generally accept that emerging adulthood is the stage when individuals take important steps in identity development that culminate in the commitments that set the foundation of their adult lives.

b. Erik Erikson’s Theory

i. In his theory of development, Erik Erikson proposed that adolescence is the stage of identity vs. identity confusion. There are three elements to developing an identity:

1) Adolescents reflect on the identifications they have accumulated in childhood.

2) Children identify with parents and other loved ones.

3) Adolescents assess available opportunities.

ii. In the identity status model, James Marcia proposed four categories of identity development: diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, and achievement. Each of these categories involves a different combination of exploration (rather than identity crisis) and commitment.

iii. Research indicates that it takes longer than scholars had expected for most people to reach identity achievement.

iv. Over recent decades, the achievement of an adult identity has come later, compared with earlier generations, as many emerging adults use their late teens and 20s for identity explorations in love, work, and ideology.

c. Culture and Identity

i. Erikson’s view of identity assumed the goal of developing an independent self (a Western concept based on research with middle-class, White adolescents in the United States, Canada, and Europe), rather than an interdependent self (defined in relation to others, as accepted by many other cultures).

ii. In developed countries, explorations in love and work are expected, but in developing countries, emerging adults have responsibilities and must contribute to the survival of the family.

iii. Gender differences in exploration are present in developing countries, with girls afforded fewer choices than boys, especially for work and love.

iv. Likewise, ideology exploration is limited in developing countries due to social norms to conform.

v. Today, globalization often influences the cultural context of identity development, resulting in a bicultural identity, which includes a local identity and a global identity or the integration of the two.

d. Ethnic Identity

i. In this stage, ethnic minorities have a sharpened awareness of what it means to be a part of their group and the stereotypes others may hold about their group.

ii. Ethnic identity becomes more of an issue when adolescents and emerging adults enter new social contexts, particularly those that include individuals from other ethnic groups or the majority culture.

iii. In general, identity issues are more complex for members of ethnic minority groups and one study concluded that they have four different ways of responding to their ethnicity: assimilation, marginality, separation, and biculturalism.

iv. Biculturalism is the most common status among many minorities such as Mexican Americans and Asian Americans, but separation is most common for African Americans, and marginality is pervasive among Native Americans.

v. Scholars have shown that those who are bicultural or assimilated have higher self-esteem and have a strong ethnic identity with positive developmental outcomes.

3. Gender Development: Cultural Beliefs and Stereotypes

LO 9.13 Summarize the changes in American gender beliefs in recent decades and include findings from research on gender stereotypes among college students.

a. Beliefs about gender roles have become more egalitarian and less restrictive in American society in recent decades, but about 25%–33% of Americans still harbor views of gender roles often seen in traditional cultures.

b. Stereotypes occur when people believe that others have certain characteristics based simply on their membership in a particular group.

c. Gender stereotypes persist in occupational roles, especially for persons who have high status in gender-incongruent occupations. Notably, both sexes hold these views, not just men, but gender stereotypes do tend to wane with age and experience.

B. Cultural Beliefs

1. Religious Development

LO 9.14 Summarize the religious beliefs and practices of American emerging adults, and contrast them with young Europeans.

a. Christian Smith and Patricia Snell (2010) conducted a national study and found that religious beliefs and practices continue to decline in emerging adulthood.

b. Emerging adults tend to hold highly individualized religious beliefs, rather than adhering to a traditional doctrine, which led to great religious diversity.

c. There are four categories of religiosity: agnostics/atheists, deists, liberal believers, and conservative believers.

d. Religious faith in emerging adulthood tends to be associated with positive characteristics.

i. Smith and Snell found religious belief and participation among emerging adults to be related to higher well-being and lower rates of risk behavior.

ii. Another study found that African American emerging adults were more likely than Whites to cope with stress by relying on religious beliefs.

e. Europeans tend to be less religious than Americans are.

f. A study of American emerging adults found afterlife beliefs to be diverse.

2. Political Development

LO 9.15 Explain why emerging adults have often been at the forefront of political movements, and contrast this with their involvement in conventional politics.

a. In Europe, Canada, and the United States, emerging adults’ political participation is low—by conventional measures such as voting rates and involvement in political parties—perhaps due to their skepticism and lack of trust in the system.

b. However, emerging adults are more likely to engage in volunteer work where they believe they can make a difference.

c. Likewise, they are more likely to join extreme political movements, such as the Chinese Cultural Revolution and Muslim extremists, than any other age group.

d. This involvement is likely due to having fewer social ties and obligations than other ages, while at the same time having more freedom, and it may be related to their identity.

C. The Social and Cultural Contexts of Emerging Adulthood

1. Family Relationships

LO 9.16 Describe the patterns of home-leaving in the United States and Europe and how this transition influences relations with parents.

a. Emerging adults in many developed countries move out of their parents’ household to live on their own or with a friend or romantic partner.

b. Relations with parents often improve as emerging adults leave home.

c. They may begin to appreciate their parents more, no longer have day-to-day friction, gain greater control over what their parents know about their lives, and become better at taking their parents’ perspectives.

d. In the United States, more than 33% remain in the parents’ home through their early 20s; this is particularly true for ethnic minority groups, perhaps due to economic reasons or familial closeness and interdependence.

e. Forty percent of emerging adults who move out subsequently return home briefly to live at least once, usually due to the transition from college to work, the burden of being self-sufficient, divorce, or conclusion of military service.

f. Some parents welcome their children’s return, but conflict tends to rise and resentment grows. In eastern and southern Europe, most emerging adults usually remain at home through their 20s but enjoy doing so.

g. Emerging adults grow in their ability to understand their parents, and research shows that they have a more mature perception of their relationship with siblings than they did as adolescents.

2. Friendships

LO 9.17 Describe the role of intimacy in emerging adults’ friendships and the most common activities of emerging adult friends.

a. Friends are important to emerging adults, especially for companionship, support, and intimacy, when they leave home.

b. Mostly during early emerging adulthood, they engage in unstructured socialization.

c. However, activities with friends decline steadily during the 20s as emerging adults form close romantic relationships.

3. Love and Sexuality

LO 9.18 Explain how romantic relationships and sexual behavior change during emerging adulthood.

a. In Search of a Soul Mate: Finding a Romantic Partner

i. Most emerging adults do what Jennifer Tanner calls “recentering”: they shift their focus from their immediate family to a romantic partner.

ii. They commonly look for someone with good interpersonal qualities who will treat them well and who will make a long-term commitment.

iii. The relationship characteristics that are most important are intimacy, companionship, leisure time choices, and status.

iv. Similarity is also very important. Scholars call this process of seeking people with their own characteristics consensual validation or consensus. Finding consensus validates their own way of looking at the world.

b. Cohabitation

i. Cohabitation is now normative in most Western countries, with about 66% of romantic partners living together before, or in lieu of, marriage.

ii. In the United States, these arrangements are usually short-lived, but in Europe cohabitation relationships are as enduring as marriages. Cohabitation is not common in the more traditional, southern Europe countries and Asian countries.

iii. Many people choose to cohabit as a “trial marriage” of sorts, and one study noted that the divorce rates for American couples who cohabited is higher than for those who did not cohabit before marriage.

c. Sexuality

i. In the United States, at 18, about 50% of emerging adults have had one sexual partner in the past year, but by age 25, almost all have had sex at least once, and if not, it was because they have chosen to wait for sex.

1) Common reasons for abstaining are fear of pregnancy, fear of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), religious or moral beliefs, and the feeling of not having met the right person.

ii. Sex most often takes place in a close romantic relationship rather than a “hookup,” but that is still common, particularly for males. Hook ups frequently involve substance use, like alcohol.

iii. Americans are highly ambivalent about premarital sex, so emerging adults who are sexually active often lack knowledge of and access to contraception.

iv. Worldwide, emerging adults’ premarital sexual behavior varies greatly across countries and cultures.

1) Rates of premarital sex are highest in Australia, Canada, the United States, and European countries.

2) The rates are somewhat lower in South American countries but males may exaggerate their sexual activity while females underreport theirs.

d. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

i. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are more common in emerging adulthood due to hookups and relationships that do not endure.

ii. Common STIs include chlamydia, human papilloma virus (HPV), herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2), and HIV/AIDS.

iii. One-half of the STIs in the United States occur in people ages 15–24.

iv. Some STIs, such as chlamydia and HPV, increase the risk of infertility for women. Chlamydia can be treated with antibiotics, while there is a vaccine for HPV that can be administered to adolescents before they become sexually active.

v. HIV/AIDS is of particular concern because it is fatal and because it is alarmingly prevalent in southern Africa. Prevention programs to reduce HIV risk have been conducted in many developing countries and have been successful in changing young people’s behavior.

4. Media Use

LO 9.19 Explain how emerging adults use social media and texting to maintain social contacts.

a. Emerging adults today have grown up with extraordinary innovation in the way media products are delivered and consumed; they are what Marc Prensky calls “digital natives.”

b. Their media use—about 12 hours a day—is diverse, from television and recorded music to electronic games, the internet, and texting using a variety of digital devices.

c. Social Media Use

i. Facebook is by far the most popular social-networking website, with more than 2 billion users worldwide in 2018.

ii. Its prominence is being challenged by Instagram, Snapchat, FaceTime, and WhatsApp.

iii. Social media are an arena for identity presentation.

iv. Emerging adults use the sites to maintain and expand their social networks.

d. Texting

i. Texting, like social media, is a way for emerging adults to remain in contact with each other, virtually all day long.

ii. Emerging adults who have moved out of their parents’ household use digital devices to keep in contact with their parents.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Exploring Emerging Adulthood

Visit the website of the Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood at http://www.ssea.org/ and click on “Resources” to find more information on scholarship, ideas, activities, and other valuable websites associated with emerging adulthood.

Section 1 Discussion: How Do You Know When You’re an Adult?

It used to be that becoming an adult was fairly clear: in late adolescence boys and girls got married and assumed an adult role. However, today’s young people are faced with the dilemma of not knowing when they have officially become an adult because we have no clear-cut initiation rites into adulthood.

Ask your class to tell you what they consider entry points into adulthood. Following are some suggestions:

Religious

Bar or bat mitzvah

Confirmation

Sexual

Menarche

Nocturnal emissions

Losing one's virginity

Social

“Sweet sixteen” or debutante parties

Going to the senior prom

Joining a gang, fraternity, sorority

Beginning to shave

Moving away from family

Joining the Armed Forces

Getting married

Becoming a parent

Voting

Getting a driver’s license

Being able to drink legally

Being able to buy cigarettes legally

Educational

Graduating from high school

Going to college

Graduating from college

Economic

Getting a checking account or credit card

Buying one’s first car

Getting one’s first full-time job

Economic independence from parents and family

Section 1 Activity: Characteristics of Emerging Adulthood

Ask students to focus on one of the five ages of emerging adulthood outlined in the textbook:

(1) the age of identity explorations; (2) the age of instability; (3) the age of self-focus; (4) the age of feeling in-between; and (5) the age of possibilities/optimism.

With this focus in mind, have students write down examples from their own experiences of how this characteristic is true of their own experience and how it is not true of their experience.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher and Discussion: Sleep Patterns

Before presenting the material associated with Learning Objective 9.4, ask for a show of hands on these questions: “How many of you often sleep much longer on weekends and holidays?”; “How many of you feel you don’t get enough sleep?”; “How many of you have difficulty falling asleep?”; “How many of you have ever pulled an all-nighter?”; and “How many of you need to drink caffeinated beverages during the day to stay alert?”

Have students notice how many have raised their hands to one or more of these questions, and then introduce the terms delayed sleep phase syndrome and sleep debt. Present the statistical frequency of sleep problems provided in the text. Follow this with all the negative cognitive and emotional consequences, and ask for volunteers to explain how they have experienced some of these effects.

Conclude by presenting the practices of good sleep hygiene, and have students select the one or two practices that may be the most beneficial to them.

Section 2 Discussion: Reflecting on Your College Experience

Ask students to respond to the following questions and present in small- or large-group discussion: What are your goals? When did you decide to go to college? Why did you choose this college? Who is paying for your education? Is this your first time in college? Did you delay going to college? If so, why? What difficulties are you experiencing? How is college like what you expected it to be, and how is it different? What conditions would make college a better experience for you? Note the themes you see among their responses.

Section 2 Discussion: Online Learning

Ask students how many of them have taken an online class, and notice how this compares to the national average of about one-third of students. Then ask those students who had taken an online class how many of them actually completed the course, and see how that compares to the national average of 10%. Have these same students explain what they saw as the advantages and disadvantages of online courses, while you write the responses on the board in two columns. Lead the class in comparing these lists to the ones in the text, and then invite the whole class to answer the question, “Under what conditions would you personally prefer to take an online class rather than a seated class?”

Section 3 Activity: Marcia’s Categories of Identity Statuses

Tell students you are going to break the class into four groups, one for each of Marcia’s categories of identity statuses—identity achievement, foreclosure, diffusion, or moratorium. Then have students move into the group that reflects their own identity status at the end of high school. Ask group members to talk about the extent to which they explored and/or committed to personal, occupational, and ideological options. Have groups share common perceptions and problems.

Section 3 Discussion and Activity: Political Beliefs and Emerging Adults

As presented in the textbook in the material associated with Learning Objective 9.15, research has shown that emerging adults in Europe, Canada, and the United States have low political participation rates. However, it has been shown that emerging adults are more likely than older adults to be involved in organizations devoted to particular issues (e.g., environment, racism, war, etc.). Ask students to respond, individually, on paper or in their notes, to the following questions: Why do you think these apparent conflicting behaviors exist? How do you think low political participation rates affect each country’s political system? Specifically, how do you think it affects general democratic elections? Do you think there is any lasting influence on emerging adults who become involved in politically extreme activities? Why? Why not? You can display or distribute the questions using Handout 9-1. After everyone has had a chance to think about and write their responses, lead a class discussion on these questions, with student volunteers contributing their responses.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: What Is Physical Attraction?

Your students will be interested to learn what research says about what attracts males and females. You can add some spice to your lecture if you bring up the controversy started by sociobiologists: What attracts us is based on evolution and is programmed in our genes. In particular, males look for beauty and youthfulness, which indicate fertility. Women look for strength and the ability to support a family. Feminists argue that this explanation penalizes women who do not fit the culture’s standards of beauty and youth and encourages eating disorders and unnecessary surgery.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Relationship Formation and Stability in Emerging Adulthood

Warner and colleagues (2011) studied the influence of sex ratios on the likelihood of relationship formation and the risk of divorce during emerging adulthood. In general, a sex ratio refers to the ratio of males for a specific area of the country. One reason these researchers studied sex ratios is to determine the availability of partners for forming romantic relationships. The researchers found that relationship formation is not influenced by the number of potential alternative partners available. Gender differences were found for how many dating partners the person has, how likely he or she would be to live with a partner, and the likelihood of infidelity.

Source:

Warner, T. D., Manning, W. D., Giordano, P. C., & Longmore, M. A. (September 2011). Relationship formation and stability in emerging adulthood: Do sex ratios matter? Social Forces, 90(1), 269–295.

Additional Source:

The National Center for Family & Marriage Research site. http://ncfmr.bgsu.edu/.

Section 3 Activity and Discussion: Television Portrayals of Emerging Adults

During the course of a week or several days between classes, have students take note of portrayals of emerging adults that they observe on television. Some students may not own or watch television. These students could watch shows that are available online on the major networks or through Netflix, Hulu, or some other streaming service. Alternatively, non-watching students could generate hypotheses about portrayals and see how they match with what the television-watching students have observed. Hold a discussion about the observational findings based on the reflection questions on Handout 9-2.

Section 3 Discussion and Activity: Social Networking Identity Analysis

Many students have Facebook accounts. Discuss with them how a person’s profile and status updates may reflect his or her identity. Have students do an informal analysis of identity in relation to their own profile and the profiles of some of their friends. This can be done together in a Smart classroom or have students do independent “fieldwork” and bring it back to a group discussion. Consider questions such as:

• What does his or her profile picture say about his or her identity/personality?

• Does the profile information indicate any peer group affiliation? Subculture? Youth culture? Values?

• How do his or her media preferences/activities relate to identity?

• Are there patterns among the friends?

• Make up your own questions and/or have the group generate other questions.

If you have a student who does not have a Facebook account, he or she can do a search of names of people they may know on Facebook using Google. For example, they can do a Google search with the term “Facebook + [the person’s name].” For example, searching “Facebook Carolyn Thomas” in the search box will bring up results for all the people named Carolyn Thomas who have Facebook accounts that do not have their accounts set to be completely private. Most people allow their name to be searched on Facebook. They do not have to have a Facebook account to view open profiles or the info section. However, unless they sign up for an account, they will not be able to view a person’s Wall, if it is open.

CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

Correlation, Causality, and Directionality

Using the information below and Handout 9-3, you can deliver this exercise as an individual assignment, small-group activity, or class discussion, or you can post it online as discussion threads that require completion of each section before students can continue.

Understanding the Concept

A big topic in psychology today is “resilience.” The word resilient means an ability to “bounce back” after stress or pressure. When discussing emerging adults, resilience refers to their ability to maintain well-being and meet life-span challenges successfully even after encountering trauma, neglect, or other difficult obstacles while growing up. We would like to know how to increase resilience, if possible.

Assuming we have our operational definition of resilience, we could try to determine the difference between resilient emerging adults and those who are not resilient. In essence, we are asking what correlates positively with resilience.

Our first problem is the large number of factors to consider. Just to name a few, we could consider genetic make-up, physical responses to stress, intelligence, access to information, creativity, personality, socioeconomic status (SES), type of trauma, social support, beliefs, mental health, physical health, and prenatal conditions. Can you think of more? We must also examine the interactions between intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental factors.

To interpret our data correctly, we will have to remember not to make certain common thinking errors about causation, directionality, and third factor variables. We must remember:

• Causality: Correlation does not ever equal causation.

• Directionality: Correlation does not tell us the direction of influence.

• Third factor variables: The correlation we see may only reflect other influences.

Critical Thinking Challenge, Use the Concept

1. If we see a positive correlation of 0.7 between SES and resilience in our population sample, will we know that higher SES increases resilience and lower SES reduces resilience?

The only correct answer is “no,” because correlation does not equal causation.

2. What can we say with certainty that we do know?

The only correct answer will indicate that we only know that there is a 0.7 positive correlation

(r = .7) between SES and resilience in our sample.

3. Is it possible that SES is not really the influence on resilience despite this strong correlation?

The only correct answer is “yes.” Additional mastery is indicated if the student suggests this could be due to a third factor variable.

Mastery Exercise, Capstone

1. Despite this strong correlation, we find emerging adults from low-SES homes who are very resilient. How might you explain this?

Correct answers may include that this is due to error in our measurement or error in our hypothesis. The desired answer is that this could indicate that one or more third factor variables are influencing resilience and that these factors vary within similar SES levels.

2. If SES is only a guidepost to a third factor variable that has influence on resilience, what might those other variables be? What factors tend to go along with SES?

This question calls on students to think about the broad effects of SES. There are many correct answers, including access to information, chronic stress, lack of prenatal care, exposure to toxins, parental level of education, childhood nutrition, and so on.

3. If we also found a positive correlation of 0.5 between IQ scores and resilience, would we know that it is the IQ scores influencing the resilience? Why or why not?

No. The desired answer is that there may be a directionality error. (Lack of resilience could influence scores on IQ tests.) Discussing third factor variables and the limits of correlational evidence indicates greater mastery of the concepts.

Bringing It Home

This is a wide-ranging discussion that may cover who is included and who is left out of interventions and what failure means to intervention recipients and how it impacts funding sources and the profession.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS

Arnett, J. J. (1998). Learning to stand alone: The contemporary American transition to adulthood in cultural and historical context. Human Development, 41(5/6), 295–315.

Arnett, J. J. (2000a). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480.

Arnett, J. J. (2000b). High hopes in a grim world: Emerging adults’ views of their futures and of ‘‘Generation X.’’ Youth & Society, 31, 267–286.

Arnett, J. J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57, 774–783.

Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. New York: Oxford University Press.

Arnett, J. J. (2007). Suffering, selfish, slackers? Myth and reality on emerging adults. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 36, 23–29.

Arnett, J. J., & Tanner, J. L. (Eds.). (2006). Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Cheah, C. S. L., & Nelson, L. J. (2004). The role of acculturation in the emerging adulthood of aboriginal college students. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(6), 495–507.

Cook, T. D., & Furstenberg, F. F. Jr. (2002). Explaining aspects of the transition to adulthood in Italy, Sweden, Germany, and the United States: A cross-disciplinary, case synthesis approach. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 580, 257–287.

Cote, J. (2000). Arrested adulthood: The changing nature of maturity and identity. New York: New York University Press.

Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Krahn, H. J. (2006). Depression, anger, and self-esteem in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories. Developmental Psychology, 42, 350–365.

Graber, J., Britto, P. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1999). What’s love got to do with it?: Adolescents’ and young adults’ beliefs about sexual and romantic relationships. In W. Furman, B. Brown, and C. Feiring (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence. Cambridge University Press.

Hamilton, S., & Hamilton, M. A. (2006). School, work, and emerging adulthood. In J. J. Arnett & J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 257–277). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Konstam, V. (2015). Emerging and young adulthood: Multiple perspectives, diverse narratives (2nd ed.). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

Lanthier, R. P., & Windham, R. C. (2004). Internet use and college adjustment: The moderating role of gender. Computers in Human Behavior, 20, 591–606.

Lee, C. M., Maggs, J. L., & Rankin, L. A. (2006). Spring break trips as a risk factor for heavy alcohol use among first-year college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67, 911–916.

Lefkowitz, E. S. (2005). “Things have gotten better”: Developmental changes among emerging adults after the transition to university. Journal of Adolescent Research 20, 40–63.

Manning, W. D., Giordano, P. C., & Longmore, M. A. (2006). Hooking up: The relationship contexts of “nonrelationship” sex. Journal of Adolescent Research, 21, 459–483.

Robbins, A., & Wilner, A. (2008). Quarterlife crisis: The unique challenges of life in your twenties. New York: MJF Books/Fine Communications.

Schulenberg, J. E., & Zarrett, N. R. (2006). Mental health during emerging adulthood: Continuity and discontinuity in courses, causes, and functions. In J. J. Arnett & J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 135–172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Trzesniewski, K. H., & Donnellan, M. B. (2010). Rethinking ‘‘Generation Me’’: A study of cohort effects from 1976–2006. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 58–75.

Tuval-Mashiach, R., & Shulman, S. (2006). Resolution of disagreements between romantic partners, among adolescents, and young adults: Qualitative analysis of interaction discourses. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 561–588.

Revel VIDEOS

Chapter Introduction: Emerging Adulthood

The Features of Emerging Adulthood

Research Focus: Graduated Driver Licensing

Tertiary Education Across Cultures

Media Use in Emerging Adulthood Across Cultures

Director of Career Services

JOURNAL PROMPTS AND SHARED WRITING QUESTIONS

Journal Prompts

Education and Work

Compare and contrast at least two of the individuals interviewed in this video regarding their views on higher education.

The Social and Cultural Contexts of Emerging Adulthood

The U.S. emerging adult interviewed in this video mentions a heavy reliance on Facebook as a “tool” to stay connected. What are some other positive uses of Facebook and other social media? What are some negative aspects of social media use?

End-of-Chapter Activities

How would you assess your physical functioning at this time of your life—excellent, good, fair, or poor? If you are an emerging adult, compare and contrast your own physical functioning with the general patterns described in this chapter’s section on Physical Development. If you are in a different stage of life, please base your description on that chapter’s section on Physical Development.

Shared Writing Questions

Risk Behavior and Health Issues

Besides unstructured socializing, what other factors might contribute to substance use in emerging adulthood?

Education and Work

How does the way that a country structures its tertiary education system reflect its cultural values, if at all?

The Social and Cultural Contexts of Emerging Adulthood

What are some other reasons why leisure activities with friends might decline in the course of emerging adulthood, other than those mentioned here?

Handout 9-1

Political Beliefs and Emerging Adults

1. Why do you think there is apparently conflicting behavior between political participation and involvement in organizations for a cause?

2. How do you think low political participation rates affect each country’s political system? Specifically, how do you think it affects general democratic elections?

3. Do you think there is any lasting influence on emerging adults who become involved in politically extreme activities? Why? Why not?

Handout 9-2

Reflections on Emerging Adults on TV

Reflection questions to guide the observation exercise:

1. What did you watch? In what type of programming did you observe the portrayals of emerging adults (e.g., TV drama, situation comedies, movie, reality show, etc.)?

2. Describe the emerging adult characters you observed.

3. Were the portrayals realistic? Explain.

4. Would you characterize any of the portrayals as stereotypical? Explain.

5. Was there a clear delineation between the adolescents, emerging adults, and adults depicted? Explain.

6. Other observations?

Handout 9-3

Correlation, Causality, and Directionality

Critical Thinking Challenge

1. If we see a positive correlation of 0.7 between SES and resilience in our population sample, will we know that higher SES increases resilience and lower SES reduces resilience?

2. What can we say with certainty that we do know?

3. Is it possible that SES is not really the influence on resilience despite this strong correlation?

Mastery Exercise

We see a positive correlation of 0.7 between SES and resilience in our population sample.

1. Despite this strong correlation, we find children from low-SES homes who are very resilient. How might you explain this?

2. If SES is only a guidepost to a third factor variable that has influence on resilience, what might those other variables be? What factors tend to go along with SES?

3. If we also found a positive correlation of 0.5 between IQ scores and resilience, would we know that it is the IQ scores influencing the resilience? Why or why not?

Correlation, Causality, and Directionality, page 2

Bringing It Home

What can result from making these common errors in thinking? Why does it matter? It matters because we may waste time, money and even increase human suffering if we act on an incorrect theory or hypothesis. In addition, we reduce public trust in our profession, limiting opportunities to do the real good we can do.

As an example, discuss what might result if we operated on the hypothesis that raising family income would increase resilience in young people—and it did not. What might happen if we decide that only young people with above-average IQ can be resilient? You may come up with other error scenarios you would like to examine.