psych study

Introduction to Psychology and Schools of Thought

• Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including the factors that influence these processes.

• Brain: The physical organ inside the skull; its various structures and functions influence behavior.

• Mind: Refers to mental processes; studies conscious and unconscious influences on behavior.

Brain Structures and Functions

• Frontal lobe: Involved in speaking and planning actions.

• Temporal lobe: Analyzes sounds and makes sense of speech.

• Hippocampus: Transfers information into memory and stores names of people and things.

• Amygdala: Almond-shaped neural clusters regulating emotions and creating a fight or flight response to fear.

• Cerebral cortex: Outer layer of the cerebrum.

• Left hemisphere: Responsible for communication, language, logic, and math.

• Right hemisphere: Handles spatial awareness, visual imagery, and facial recognition.

Schools of Thought

• Psychodynamic theories: Emphasize the unconscious mind and how life experiences create connections between unconscious and conscious thoughts.

• Behavioral psychology: Focuses on observable and measurable behaviors.

• Humanistic psychology: Highlights the uniqueness of individuals and their capacity for growth.

• Cognitive psychology: Studies mental processes and how thought processes influence behavior.

Freud's Contributions

• Ego: The rational part of the mind.

• Id: The instinctual aspect of the mind.

• Superego: Acts as the mind's conscience.

• Defense Mechanisms: Ego’s methods of distorting reality to cope with anxiety.

Defense Mechanisms

• Repression: Excluding unacceptable desires from consciousness, operating unconsciously.

• Denial: Refusing to acknowledge painful realities.

• Displacement: Shifting emotions from the original focus to a different object or person.

• Projection: Attributing one's own threatening impulses onto others.

• Intellectualization: Overanalyzing to detach from emotional responses.

• Reaction formation: Replacing an initial impulse with its opposite.

• Rationalization: Justifying behavior through rational explanations.

• Sublimation: Transforming anxiety into constructive actions.

Influential Theorists

• Carl Jung: Proposed personal and collective unconscious influencing behavior, introducing archetypes as universal symbols.

• Karen Horney: Addressed gender bias in psychology and the dependence of women on men in society.

• Erik Erikson: Developed psychosocial development theories; identity crisis critical in adolescence.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

1. Trust vs mistrust (birth to 18 months)

2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt (18 months to 3 years)

3. Initiative vs guilt (3 to 5 years)

4. Industry vs inferiority (6 to 11 years)

5. Identity vs confusion (12 to 18 years)

6. Intimacy vs isolation (18 to 40 years)

7. Generativity vs stagnation (40 to 65 years)

8. Integrity vs despair (65 years to death)

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov: Showed that internal processes can be studies objectively through classical conditioning.

• Key Concepts:

  • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.

  • Unconditioned response (UCR): Natural response to the UCS.

  • Neutral stimulus (NS): Initially has no response.

  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that triggers a response after conditioning.

  • Conditioned response (CR): Learned response to the CS.

• Before Conditioning: UCS > UCR; NS > N/A

• During Conditioning: NS + UCS > UCR

• After Conditioning: CS > CR

Notable Experiments

• John Watson and Rayner: Conducted the Little Albert experiment, proving that humans can develop conditioned responses (fear) towards objects.

• B.F. Skinner: Explored operant conditioning; studied how rewards and punishments influence behavior.

  • Skinner Box: Rats use levers to receive food rewards—demonstrates reinforcement.

  • Positive reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to increase desired behavior.

  • Negative reinforcement: Removing a stimulus to increase desired behavior.

  • Positive punishment: Adding a stimulus to decrease undesired behavior.

  • Negative punishment: Removing a stimulus to decrease undesired behavior.

Abraham Maslow

• Developed the Hierarchy of Needs: Essential for achieving self-actualization; needs must be satisfied in a specific order:

  • 1. Physiological

  • 2. Safety

  • 3. Love/belonging

  • 4. Esteem

  • 5. Self-actualization

Viktor Frankl

• Proposed Logotherapy, a psychotherapy method that emphasizes finding personal meaning and purpose in life.

Jean Piaget

• Created a theory of cognitive development explaining children's changes in reasoning:

  • Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years): Understanding the world through senses and actions.

  • Pre-operational (2 to 6 years): Language and symbolic thinking; egocentric perspectives.

  • Concrete operational (7 to 11 years): Logic development; less egocentric thinking.

  • Formal operational (12 years to adulthood): Abstract reasoning; not all adults reach this stage.

Albert Bandura

• Bobo doll experiment: Demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior observed in adults.

Elizabeth Loftus

• Concepts of False Memories: Emphasized that repressed memories are rare and can be influenced by suggestion.

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation: Activation of sense receptors by external stimuli.

• Perception: Interpretation of sensory input.

Types of Sensation

• Taste (gustation): Taste buds detect flavors: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, savory/umami.

• Touch (somatosensation): Nerve endings detect: pain, pressure, temperature, and vibration.

• Sound (audition): Vibrations travel through the air, processed by auditory nerves.

• Smell (olfaction): Odor molecules reach olfactory receptors that inform the brain of smells.

• Sight (vision): Light processed by the retina's rods and cones informs about visual stimuli.

Factors Affecting Perception

• Background and surroundings: Influence perceptions.

• Perceiver: Individual experiences shape perceptions.

• Constancy: Perceptual systems maintain stability despite sensory changes.

• Filling in gaps and grouping: Brain functions on assumptions to complete incomplete information.

• Perceptual set: Past experiences shape current perceptions.

• Selective attention: Focus on a stimulus while ignoring others.

Influences on Behavior

• Instinct Theory: Involuntary processes drive behavior.

• Drive Reduction Theory: Physiological needs create drives that motivate satisfaction.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Performing a task for its inherent satisfaction.

• Extrinsic Motivation: Performing a task for external rewards or to avoid punishment.

• Achievement Motivation: Desire to accomplish significant goals.

Attitudes and Behavior

• Cognitive dissonance: Motivation to reduce discomfort from contradictory beliefs and behaviors.

• Explicit vs Implicit attitudes: Conscious vs unconscious beliefs affecting responses.

• Negativity Bias: Easier recall of negative events than positive ones.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating personal traits while underestimating situational influences on behavior.

Behavioral Change Model

1. Precontemplation: Unawareness of a problem.

2. Contemplation: Awareness of the problem but uncertainty about action.

3. Preparation: Commitment to change with a plan.

4. Action: Implementation of behavior change.

5. Maintenance: Sustaining new behavior.

6. Stable Behavior: Fully integrated new behavior.

7. Relapse: Return to old behaviors.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

• Behavior influenced by unconscious desires and unresolved stages, leading to fixation.

Erikson's Psychosocial Development

• Identity develops through eight sequential stages, addressing each stage's psychosocial challenges.

Harry Harlow and Attachment Theory

• Harlow's Monkeys: Experiment with infant monkeys raised with surrogate mothers, challenging traditional attachment assumptions.

• Mary Ainsworth: Studied attachment styles observed in children with caregivers:

  • Secure: Positive self and partner perceptions.

  • Dismissive-avoidant: Positive self, negative partner view.

  • Anxious: Negative self, positive partner view.

  • Fearful-avoidant: Negative perceptions of both self and partner.

Nature vs Nurture

• Hereditary: Biological factors in personality and behavior.

• Environment: External influences such as socio-economic status and relationships.

• Twin Studies: Highlight the balance of genetic and environmental impacts on development.

Personality Traits - OCEAN Model

• Openness: Willingness to embrace new ideas.

• Conscientiousness: Organization and achievement orientation.

• Extraversion: Sociability and energetic engagement.

• Agreeableness: Kindness, tolerance, and warmth.

• Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

Sleep and Its Importance

• Sleep: Essential for physical and mental restoration, marked by closed eyes, relaxed muscles, and suspended consciousness.

• REM (Rapid Eye Movement): Sleep stage characterized by dreaming and brain activity resembling that of wakefulness.

Consequences of Poor Sleep

• Increased risk of hypertension, diabetes, obesity, depression, and heart disease.

Memory Functions

• Memory Recall: Retrieval of stored information.

• Recognition: Identifying learned items.

• Relearning: Assessing time saved in learning material again.

Memory Models

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Explains the process of memory storage.

  • Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory input.

  • Short-term Memory: Holds limited information briefly.

  • Long-term Memory: Potentially indefinite storage.

Memory Types

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of facts/events.

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious influence on behavior.

• Procedural Memory: Knowledge of how to perform tasks.

• Episodic/Flashbulb Memory: Personal experiences linked to particular events.

Mental Illness and Wellness

• Criteria for Harmful Dysfunction:

  1. Atypical

  2. Disturbing

  3. Maladaptive

  4. Unjustifiable

Models of Mental Illness

• Medical Model: Assumes mental illness has physical causes and can be diagnosed/treatment based on symptoms.

• Biopsychosocial Perspective: Interplay of biological, sociocultural, and psychological factors causing disorders.

Classification Systems

• DSM-5: Manual for classifying psychological disorders by the American Psychiatric Association.

• ICD-10: WHO's international disease classification.

Anxiety Disorders

• Defined by persistent maladaptive behaviors reducing anxiety

  • Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Persistent tension and apprehension.

  • Panic Disorder: Episodes of intense dread and physical symptoms.

  • Phobias: Intense irrational fears of specific situations/objects.

  • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Repetitive unwanted thoughts/actions.

  • Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Lingering symptoms after trauma, affecting daily functioning.

Dissociative Disorders

• Dissociative Identity Disorder: Involves two or more distinct personalities.

Mood Disorders

• Major Depressive Disorder: Characterized by duration of depressed moods and lack of interest.

• Bipolar Disorder: Alternation between depression and manic states.

• Manic Episode: Hyperactivity and elevated mood states.

Schizophrenia and Psychotic Disorders

• Schizophrenia: Severe disturbances in thought and perception.

  • Delusions: False beliefs linked to persecution or grandeur.

  • Hallucinations: Perceptions without stimuli.

Personality Disorders

• Characterized by rigid behavior patterns impairing daily functioning.

• Antisocial Personality Disorder: Lack of conscience, often exhibiting aggressive traits.

Schools of Thought in Psychology

1. Psychodynamic Theory

• Focus: Emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind and the influence of past experiences on behavior.

• Major Thinker: Sigmund Freud

  • Contributions: Introduced concepts of the id, ego, and superego; developed the theory of defense mechanisms (repression, denial, displacement, etc.).

2. Behavioral Psychology

• Focus: Concentrates on observable and measurable behaviors and how they are learned and maintained.

• Major Thinkers:

  • Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning (e.g., conditioned response through associative learning).

  • B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning (the use of rewards and punishments to shape behavior).

3. Cognitive Psychology

• Focus: Studies mental processes and how they influence behavior, including perception, memory, and problem-solving.

• Major Thinker: Jean Piaget

  • Contributions: Developed stages of cognitive development in children (sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational).

4. Humanistic Psychology

• Focus: Highlights human potential, personal growth, and the uniqueness of the individual.

• Major Thinker: Abraham Maslow

  • Contributions: Created the Hierarchy of Needs, emphasizing self-actualization as a goal of life.

5. Feminist Psychology

• Focus: Examines the ways in which gender affects psychological processes and challenges historical biases in psychological research.

6. Developmental Psychology

• Focus: Studies the psychological growth and changes across a lifespan.

• Key Concepts: Stages of psychosocial development (Erik Erikson).

The Brain vs. The Mind

• Brain: The physical organ that processes information and regulates body functions.

• Mind: The set of mental processes including thoughts, emotions, and consciousness.

Sensation vs. Perception

• Sensation: The activation of sensory receptors; initial detection of stimuli.

• Perception: The interpretation of sensory information based on experiences and context.

Attitude, Behavior, and Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation: Performing an act for inherent satisfaction or interest.

• Extrinsic Motivation: Doing something for external rewards or to avoid punishment.

• Factors Influencing Behavior: Psychological, biological, and environmental factors can drive behavior.

• Biological vs. Cognitive/Environmental Explanations: Behavior can be attributed to genetic/hereditary factors versus learned/cognitive factors.

• Twin Studies: Help understand the roles of genetics versus environment in shaping behavior.

Attitude and Behavior

• Attitude can influence behavior; attitudes can be explicit (conscious) or implicit (unconscious).

• Changes in attitude can occur through education, persuasion, or cognitive dissonance.

Social Thinking

• Behavior in Groups: Psychologists study conformity, groupthink, and social influence.

• Prejudice and Stereotypes: Develop from social learning and cultural influences.

• Mental Health and Behavior: Mental health conditions can significantly impact behavior and social functioning.

Defense Mechanisms and Behavior

• Defense mechanisms like repression or rationalization explain how individuals cope with anxiety and stress.

• Examples: Denial (refusing to acknowledge reality), projection (attributing one's unacceptable thoughts to others).

Mental Illness and Behavior

• Different mental illnesses can manifest as specific behavioral patterns, such as anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and personality disorders.

• Examples: Major depressive disorder leads to persistent feelings of sadness, while antisocial personality disorder may lead to disregard for others' feelings.