The End of the Soviet Union and Eastern European Transformation

Overview of the Western Order Post World War II

• Between 1945-1985, the Western world was divided:

  • Prosperous, capitalist West

  • Impoverished, communist East

• Late 1980s and early 1990s saw revolutionary upheaval in the Soviet Union, altering the European landscape.

The Gorbachev Era

• Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in March 1985

  • Aimed to reform the outdated Soviet Union.

  • Acknowledged severe economic issues:

  • Rigid centralized planning caused mismanagement.

  • The Soviet Union lagged in high technology, particularly computers

• Declining standard of living became apparent to the citizens.

• 1986 Congress of the Communist Party: Called for radical changes due to increasing societal stagnation:

  • "Problems grow faster than they are solved."

Key Reforms: Perestroika and Glasnost

• Perestroika (restructuring):

  • Initial focus on economic policy changes towards a market economy with limited free enterprise.

  • Later understood as needing to reform political and social spheres as well.

• Glasnost (openness):

  • Encouraged discussions on Soviet strengths and weaknesses.

  • Official newspaper Pravda began reporting on corruption and protests.

• Political Reforms:

  • Introduction of a new parliament (Congress of People’s Deputies) with competitive elections in 1989.

  • Legalized formation of other political parties and removed the Communist Party's leading role from the Constitution.

Challenges of Nationality and Ethnic Tensions

• The Soviet Union was multi-ethnic with 92 nationalities, and Gorbachev's reforms released suppressed tensions:

  • Ethnic groups protested for sovereignty and independence.

• Examples of nationalist movements included:

  • Georgia, Latvia, Estonia, Moldova, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Lithuania.

• Lithuania proclaimed independence on March 11, 1990.

The Collapse of the Soviet Union

• Between 1990-1991, Gorbachev faced increasing struggles between liberal and conservative forces:

  • Attempted to appease both sides, leading to further unrest.

• Conservative coup attempt in August 1991 against Gorbachev but failed due to public resistance.

• Ukraine voted for independence on December 1, 1991, followed by a declaration of the end of the Soviet Union on December 8, 1991.

• Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991, marking the fall of a major empire.

Causes of the Soviet Collapse

• Analysts suggest:

  • Defense policies of the Reagan administration contributed to an arms race.

  • Inherent systemic inefficiencies led to economic decline.

  • Lack of technological investment stifled innovation and growth.

• Ethnic divisions added to weakening, as minority nationalities sought autonomy.

The New Russia under Yeltsin

• Yeltsin emerged as the president with a commitment to a free market, struggling with economic hardships and organized crime.

• Despite Yeltsin's reelection in 1996, many Russians were disillusioned with capitalism and the government.

The Putin Era

• Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin in 1999 and centralized power, adopting a strong assertive role in global affairs.

• Resilience of the Russian state was prioritized and reforms initiated for economic growth, although he faced criticism for silencing dissent.

• Ukraine Crisis: Protests erupted in Ukraine in 2013, leading to Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014, drawing international condemnation.

Eastern Europe: The Revolutions of 1989

• Discontent with Soviet-style regimes peaked as Gorbachev reassured non-intervention.

  • Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia saw movements leading to democratic changes and the fall of communist regimes.

  • Poland held its first free elections in 1989.

• Romania’s dictator Ceausescu was executed after violent uprisings in 1989.

Challenges of Transition and European Integration

• Transition to democracy and market economies faced significant obstacles:

  • Lack of democratic experience, ethnic divisions resurfaced, and economic shocks led to social incomprehension.

• Despite the painful transition, countries like Poland and the Czech Republic moved toward a prosperous future.

• NATO and EU integration saw Poland and other states join; however, concerns over economic dominance and immigration persist.

The Reunification of Germany

• Economic slump and oppression in East Germany led to mass protests in 1989.

• The Berlin Wall was torn down on November 9, 1989, symbolizing the end of the Cold War.

• Germany was officially reunified on October 3, 1990, achieving something previously deemed impossible.