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Historical Context: From Westphalia to the Concert of Europe

• The Transition from Sovereignty to Global Relations:

  • The Peace of Westphalia (1648) established the norm of sovereignty, a concept pivotal in defining statehood and international relations.

  • Sovereignty implies that a state has political authority over its territory and citizens, allowing for self-governance free from external interference.

  • The emergence of an anarchic system in international relations meant there was no overarching authority among states, leading to varied interactions based on self-interest.

Problems with Viewing Westphalia as the Beginning of International Order

1. Oversimplification of Historical Complexity: The notion of Westphalia marks the beginning of a systematic international order overlooks the intricacies of pre-Westphalian diplomatic practices and international interactions that existed prior to 1648.

2. Neglect of Non-European Perspectives: Focusing on Westphalia primarily emphasizes European state-building narratives and disregards the multitude of international systems and norms that existed beyond Europe, which also influenced global relations.

3. Sovereignty Misinterpretation: Many scholars argue that the concept of sovereignty established by Westphalia is misinterpreted and does not fully account for the emerging global interdependence and the role of non-state actors in shaping international relations.

4. Anarchy and State Behavior: Viewing Westphalia as the foundational moment can lead to an overemphasis on anarchy in international relations while neglecting how cooperation and shared interests often challenge the self-help model.

5. Limitations of the State-Centric Model: The state-centric approach rooted in Westphalia may fail to address the complexities of globalization, where transnational organizations, NGOs, and economic entities play a crucial role in international order.

6. Historical Context Overlooked: This perspective often overlooks the historical interactions and exchanges among various cultures that predate Westphalia, which have contributed significantly to contemporary international relations. Furthermore, it can be argued that this narrow focus limits our understanding of how historical legacies and power dynamics interact with modern challenges, thereby necessitating a more nuanced approach to the study of international relations.

Anarchy in International Relations

• Understanding Anarchy: Anarchy is not equivalent to chaos; it denotes a lack of a formal hierarchy among states. This condition necessitates that states operate under self-help principles.

  • The traditional view of sovereignty is criticized for oversimplifying the complexities inherent in global power dynamics, particularly in relation to the behavior of states in an anarchic international system.

Eighteenth Century: Balancing Power

• Power Dynamics Following the Thirty Years' War:

  • Solutions were conceptualized in the 18th century to preempt powerful states from dominating others post-conflict.

  • Balance of Power: An essential principle aimed at preventing any state from becoming excessively powerful, leading to conflict. States achieve balance through:

    • Internal balancing: Strengthening their own capabilities.

    • External balancing: Forming alliances with other states.

Institution Building

• Development expanded to include the creation of international law, resident embassies, and communication channels between states.

  • This phase led to the establishment of norms of conduct for warfare, whereby limited warfare became a legitimate form of conflict resolution, promoting stability. You could not have form of total war or warfare on civilians.

  • Social sanctions state that there are particular norms and value that you must adhere to or we will not recognise you as a member of this international society.

Nineteenth Century: Revolution and Change

• Age of Revolutions: Sparked by the American and French Revolutions, advocating for the principles of popular sovereignty and civil rights.

  • American Revolution (1775-1783): Resulted in the United States gaining independence from Britain, emphasizing individual liberties and democratic governance. Based off of notion “All men are created equal”—> except it is not all men because women and slaves had no right to that sovereignty.

  • French Revolution (1789-1799): Challenged monarchic authority and feudal privileges, promoting ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. They stated all citizens are equal effecting other countries however specified over Europe, which mean Universalism was not so universal.

  • The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804): Led to the first successful slave revolt, resulting in Haiti becoming the first independent black republic and the second independent nation in the Americas, further inspiring movements for emancipation and human rights globally. The promise of true universalism that all people regardless of gender, race and colour have equal rights.

• Impact on the European Political Landscape:

  • The initial response from European powers included invasions aimed at containing the radical ideologies emerging from these revolutions.

  • This period saw the formation of coalitions intended to limit French power, culminating in the Concert of Europe in 1815, which sought to maintain a balance of power on the continent.

  • Concert of Europe kind of successful due to no major war until 1914

Hierarchy in East Asia

1. Concept of Hierarchy

   • The traditional East Asian international system was characterized by a hierarchical structure, with China often viewed as the dominant power or "central kingdom."

   • This hierarchy was not merely political but extended to cultural and economic dimensions, influencing diplomacy and trade practices among states.

2. Tributary Relationships

   • Neighbouring states acknowledged Chinese supremacy by participating in the tribute system, which involved sending embassies and gifts while receiving protection and trade benefits in return.

   • This system established a clear pecking order with China at the top, and tributary states, including Korea, Vietnam, and Japan, playing subordinate roles.

   • Such relationships facilitated peaceful interactions but also imposed expectations of loyalty and recognition of Chinese authority.

3. Confucian Values

   • Confucianism deeply influenced the hierarchical structure, emphasizing respect for authority, social harmony, and loyalty to the state.

   • It shaped diplomatic norms, where relationships between rulers and subjects (or leaders and tributaries) were governed by moral and ethical standards rather than merely political agreements.

4. Rituals and Diplomacy

   • Diplomatic exchanges were structured around rituals that reinforced the hierarchy, including ceremonies where tributary states would bow before the Chinese emperor to signify their respect and allegiance.

   • Such rituals symbolized the legitimacy of the tributary state's own authority, reinforced by their relationship with China.

5. Shift in Power Dynamics

   • The hierarchy experienced significant changes in the 19th and 20th centuries due to Western imperialism and the rise of nationalist sentiments, leading to a reevaluation of these traditional hierarchies.

   • As countries like Japan transformed and emerged as regional powers, the established hierarchy began to shift, creating a more complex inter-state relationship in East Asia.

6. Contemporary Relevance

   • Today, while the formal tribute system is obsolete, elements of hierarchy persist in the form of China’s regional influence over smaller neighboring states, affecting economic relations and security policies.

   • The evolving dynamics of power in East Asia continue to reflect historical hierarchies, particularly evident in China's relationships with countries in the South China Sea and its Belt and Road Initiative.

The Role of Capitalism

• Shift from Subsistence Farming to Capitalism: This marked a significant change in socio-economic structures, with a move towards market-oriented production.

  • Individuals began to sell their labor to earn money necessary for purchasing goods and services, leading to a cycle of dependency on market forces.

• Historical Significance: Capitalism drives technological innovation and resource management.

  • Increased global interactions emerged due to competition among capitalist firms and states.

  • Wealth translates into Geopolitical strength

  • Separation of wealth and power

Great Divergence and Global Domination

• The emergence of European powers was highlighted by the Great Divergence post-1800, allowing Europe to surpass other regions economically through capitalist innovations.

  • European states expanded their empires globally, fundamentally altering international relations and leading to the establishment of global trade networks.

  • Global dominance between 1800-2000

Definition of the Atlantic World System

• A network of cultural, economic, and political connections developed between Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the late 15th century onward.

Key Elements of the Atlantic World System

• Transatlantic Trade:

  • Involved the exchange of goods, people, and ideas across the Atlantic Ocean.

  • Included the triangular trade routes connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

• Slave Trade:

  • The forced transportation of enslaved Africans to the Americas to support plantation economies.

  • A crucial element influencing economic development in the Atlantic system.

• Colonization:

  • European powers established colonies in the Americas, impacting indigenous populations and their economies.

  • Led to the spread of European political systems and social structures in the Americas.

• Cultural Exchanges:

  • Intermingling of African, European, and Native American cultures.

  • Influence on language, religion, and customs in the Atlantic world.

Significant Historical Events

• Age of Exploration:

  • Initiated by figures like Columbus and Vasco da Gama, leading to the discovery of new lands.

• Establishment of Colonial Regimes:

  • Following exploration, European powers developed extensive colonial empires.

• Revolutions and Independence Movements:

  • The American, Haitian, and Latin American revolutions challenging colonial rule.

Economic Impact

• Mercantilism:

  • Economic theory driving European powers to accumulate wealth through trade monopolies and colonization.

• Resource Exploitation:

  • European nations exploited natural resources from their colonies to fuel economies.

Political Consequences

• Rise of New Nations:

  • The formation of new sovereign nations as colonies gained independence.

• Shift in Global Power Dynamics:

  • The emergence of the Americas as significant players in global politics and economics.

Conclusion and Forward Look

• The need for a sophisticated approach to understanding international relations that takes into account both hierarchical and anarchic elements is crucial.

  • Recognition of the complexity of global interactions is necessary, considering the interplay between differing powers, evolving norms, and varying economic systems.

  • Upcoming lectures will focus on the rise and fall of empires, analyzing their relevance to today's geopolitical landscape.