Untitled Flashcards Set

8.1 Human populations

Key Terms

• Demographic inputs and outputs – Factors affecting population size (births, deaths, immigration, and emigration).

• Crude Birth Rate (CBR) – Number of live births per 1,000 people per year. (Births/population x 1,000)

• Crude Death Rate (CDR) – Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.(Deaths/population x1000)

• Total Fertility Rate (TFR) – Average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime.

• Life Expectancy (LE) – The average number of years a person is expected to live.

• Natural Increase Rate (NIR) – The percentage growth of a population per year, excluding migration. Formula: NIR = (CBR – CDR) ÷ 10

• Doubling Time (DT) – The number of years it takes for a population to double. Formula: DT = 70 ÷ NIR

• Immigration – Movement of people into a country.

• Emigration – Movement of people out of a country.

Population Growth and Uncertainty

• Reasons for rapid population growth:

  • Advancements in healthcare (lower mortality rates).

  • Agricultural improvements (more food supply).

  • Industrialization (better living standards).

  • High fertility rates in developing countries.

• Uncertainties in predicting future trends:

  • Changing fertility rates.

  • Economic fluctuations.

• Factors influencing variation in projected growth:

  • Access to education and family planning.

  • Economic development and urbanization.

Population and Migration Policies

• Pro-natalist policies (e.g., France, Japan) – Encourage higher birth rates through incentives like parental leave and tax breaks.

• Anti-natalist policies (e.g., China’s former One-Child Policy) – Discourage births through regulations or economic penalties.

• Migration policies – Countries may restrict or encourage immigration depending on labor needs and social integration concerns.

Success Factors of Policies

• Government stability and enforcement.

• Cultural attitudes and societal acceptance.

• Economic incentives or disincentives.

Population Pyramids

• Definition: Graphical representation of age and gender distribution.

• What they show:

  • Birth rates and death rates.

  • Dependency ratios (young vs. elderly).

  • Future population trends (growth, decline, or stability).

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

• Stage 1: High birth and death rates, slow growth (pre-industrial societies).

• Stage 2: Declining death rates, high birth rates, rapid growth (early industrial).

• Stage 3: Birth rates begin to decline, slower growth (late industrial).

• Stage 4: Low birth and death rates, stable or slow decline (developed countries).

• Stage 5 (sometimes added): Aging population, potential decline (e.g., Japan, Germany).

HL: Why Two Countries Are in Different DTM Stages

• Example: Nigeria (Stage 2) vs. Germany (Stage 5)

  • Nigeria has high birth rates due to lack of contraception and cultural factors.

  • Germany has low birth rates due to economic stability and an aging population.

8.2 Urban Systems and Urban Planning

Urban Ecosystems

• Biotic components: Humans, animals, plants, bacteria, decomposers.

• Abiotic components: Buildings, roads, water systems, air, soil.

Urbanization

• Definition: The increasing percentage of people living in cities.

• Urban area: A densely populated region with infrastructure, industry, and commerce.

• Inputs, Outputs, Stores, and Flows in an Urban Area:

  • Inputs: Energy, water, food, materials.

  • Outputs: Waste, pollution, goods, services.

  • Stores: Buildings, infrastructure, resources.

  • Flows: Transportation, migration, economy.

Why Urbanization Is Happening

• Job opportunities in cities.

• Institutions, education, services

• Industrialization and economic development.

• recreation

• salaries

Urban Planning and Sustainability

• Sustainable urban planning strategies:

  • Green spaces, efficient public transport, renewable energy, waste management.

• Ecological urban planning: Designing cities to reduce environmental impact.

  • Example: Barcelona

    • Superblocks (Superilles) – Groups of 9 city blocks where through-traffic is restricted, creating pedestrian-friendly zones. Reduces pollution and promotes walking/cycling.

    • Green Infrastructure – More parks, rooftop gardens, and trees to improve air quality and reduce heat.

    • Public Transport & Low Emission Zone (LEZ) – Extensive metro, buses, and bike-sharing; polluting cars restricted in city center.

    • Renewable Energy – Solar panels required on new buildings; district heating/cooling systems use waste heat.

    • Waste & Circular Economy – Smart waste bins, strong recycling programs, and efficient collection routes.

HL: Circular/Doughnut Economics in Urban Systems

• Circular economy: Reducing waste by reusing materials.

• Doughnut economics: Balancing human needs with environmental sustainability.

• Example: Amsterdam’s efforts to reduce resource consumption and emissions.

8.3 Urban Air Pollution

Sources of Air Pollution

• Natural sources: Volcanic eruptions, wildfires, dust storms.

• Anthropogenic sources: Vehicle emissions, industrial activity, deforestation.

Major Cause of Urban Air Pollution

• Burning fossil fuels (transportation, industry, electricity production).

Management Strategies for Urban Air Pollution

• Prevention:

  • Transition to renewable energy.

  • Improve fuel efficiency and emission standards.

• Regulations:

  • Air quality laws (e.g., Clean Air Act).

• Technological solutions:

  • Catalytic converters in cars.

  • Filters in factories.

Acid Rain and Its Impacts

• Formation: SO₂ and NOₓ react with water vapor to form sulfuric and nitric acid.

• Impacts:

  • Soil and water acidification.

  • Damage to forests and aquatic ecosystems.

  • Corrosion of buildings and infrastructure.

  • Poisonous aluminum  leaching

Management of Acid Deposition

• Reduce emissions (e.g., cleaner energy, scrubbers in power plants).

• Neutralization (e.g., adding lime to acidic lakes and soils).

• International agreements (e.g., Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol).

HL: Photochemical Smog Formation

• Definition: Smog formed when sunlight reacts with pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), producing harmful ground-level (tropospheric) ozone, nitric acid, aldehydes, and peroxyacyl nitrates.

• Effects: Respiratory issues, reduced visibility, environmental damage.

• Management: Reduce vehicle emissions, improve fuel quality, and public transportation.