Untitled Flashcards Set

Smog- Unhealthy mixture of air pollutants. 

Industrial Smog- Release of pollutants from industrial burning of fossil fuels combined with weather that traps the pollutants in an area. 

Industrial Smog Components- Contains a mix of chemicals: Carbon dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur dioxide (Which can form Sulfuric Acid), Nitric Oxides (Which can form Nitric acids), Soot, Mercury and other heavy metals. 

Deadly Industrial Smog Events- Donora PA 1948 

Photochemical Smog- Automobile exhaust and other organic pollutants combined with sunlight produce a whole bunch of nasty secondary pollutants. 

Conditions for Photochemical Smog- Most commonly formed on Very Hot low wind days; needs the energy from the sun to fuel the secondary reactions; low winds allow the pollutants to accumulate to high enough level to form smog. 

Health Issues from Photochemical Smog- Irritates Eyes, Noses and throats; aggravates existing conditions like Asthma; prolonged exposure can cause Asthma, Lung Damage, Heart problems and even Cancer; the Young and elderly are particularly vulnerable. 

Reducing Smog- Higher Fuel efficiency standards, more public transportation, regulations on Automobiles and Industry to reduce pollution, inspection programs. 

Reduction of Pollution Since 1960s- VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) are down 98%; smog forming car emissions are down to 1% of what a 1960's car emitted. 

Ozone in the Troposphere- Bad; its caustic and irritates eyes, throat, lungs. 

Ozone in the Stratosphere- Good; screens out deadly Ultraviolet light from the sun. 

Ozone Composition- A form of Oxygen gas composed of 3 oxygen atoms instead of the usual two. 

Ozone Depletion Causes- Caused by airborne chemicals, mostly manmade, chiefly Halocarbons (like Hydrocarbons only with Halogens replacing some of the hydrogens 

CFCs- Chlorinated Fluorocarbons used for refrigerants, fire extinguishers, aerosol propellants, cleaning electronics, and producing polystyrene foam (Styrofoam). 

Effects of Ozone Depletion- Increase in skin cancers, decreased crop yields, destruction of ocean phytoplankton (base of marine food chain). 

Chlorine's Impact on Ozone- One Cl can destroy 100,000 Ozone molecules. 

Ozone Hole- Ozone depletion is seen in the Ozone Hole over the South Pole; annually stratospheric ozone declines to under ½ its historic levels each spring. 

Montreal Protocol- 1987 international treaty addressing ozone depletion; agreement to cut CFC production ½ by 1998. 

Ozone Layer Recovery Prediction- Full recovery is predicted to be around 2060. 

Acid Deposition- Deposition of Acidic compounds from the atmosphere; more commonly called Acid Rain but can also be in the forms of Acid Fog, Acid Snow, Acid Dust. 

Acid Deposition and International Borders- Like Ozone depletion, it can cross international borders, requiring international cooperation to address. 

Primary Pollutants of Acid Deposition- Sulfur dioxide and Nitric Oxide formed from burning fossil fuels; acid deposition is a secondary pollutant of Sulfuric Acid and Nitric Acid. 

Negative Impacts of Acid Deposition- Lowers pH of soil, lakes and streams; corrodes metals; destroys buildings. 

1990 Acid Rain Program- Set sulfur dioxide limits and sold permits that could be traded by industry 

Cap and Trade Outcomes- Under Cap and Trade, industries were given incentive to reduce their pollution with freedom to choose how they met their goals; over time the cap is lowered encouraging further improvements. 

Sulfur Dioxide Emission Reduction- Sulfur dioxide emission fell 67% and are below the amount allocated. 

Climate- Long-term average atmospheric conditions in an area. 

Weather- Day-to-day specific atmospheric conditions. 

Global Climate Change- Changes in various climate aspects globally. 

Global Warming- Increase in Earth's average temperature. 

Factors Influencing Climate- Sun, atmosphere, and oceans affect climate. 

Greenhouse Gases- Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. 

Common Greenhouse Gases- Includes CO2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, and CFCs. 

Industrial Revolution- Period marking significant greenhouse gas increase. 

Ice Core Data- Records atmospheric gas levels over 800,000 years. 

Fossil Fuels- Burning releases CO2 and Nitric Oxides. 

Deforestation- Removes CO2 sinks, increasing atmospheric CO2. 

Radiative Forcing- Change in thermal energy due to factors. 

Positive Radiative Forcing- Heats the planet by increasing thermal energy. 

Negative Radiative Forcing- Cools the planet by reducing thermal energy. 

Milankovitch Cycles- Periodic changes in Earth's movements affecting climate. 

Proxy Measurements- Indirect evidence to infer past climate conditions. 

Climate Models- Computer simulations predicting future climate scenarios. 

Consensus Among Scientists- Agreement that climate change is human-caused. 

Extreme Weather- More powerful storms becoming increasingly common. 

Ocean Acidification- Drop in pH due to increased CO2 levels. 

Coral Bleaching- Loss of coral color due to stress factors. 

Health Impacts- Increased diseases and respiratory issues from pollution. 

Species Composition Changes- Alterations in community species due to climate. 

Ecosystem Shifts- Communities change as species adapt to climate. 

Glacial and Sea Ice Changes- Melting ice contributes to rising sea levels. 

Sea Level Rise- Affects coastal areas and ecosystems globally. 

Nutritional Quality Decrease- Increased photosynthesis may lower plant nutrition. 

Economic Costs- Financial impacts from climate-related disasters and protection. 

Health Costs- Increased health issues due to climate impacts. 

Climate Skeptics- Individuals denying climate change due to interests. 

Mitigation- Efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 

Adaptation- Strategies to adjust to climate change effects. 

Carbon Footprint- Total carbon dioxide emissions from lifestyle. 

Transportation Emissions- Accounts for 35% of US carbon emissions. 

Electricity Production Emissions- Another 35% of US emissions from electricity. 

Diet Impact- Animal products contribute significantly to emissions. 

Carbon Pricing- Economic cost on carbon emissions to incentivize reductions. 

Carbon Taxation- Tax on carbon content of fossil fuels. 

Fee and Dividend- Carbon tax revenue reduces public taxes. 

Carbon Trading- Permits for carbon emissions bought and sold. 

Cap and Trade- Pollution allowances traded among companies. 

Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative- Regulates emissions in several US states. 

Kyoto Protocol- 1997 agreement for mandatory greenhouse gas reductions. 

Paris Accord- 2015 commitment to reduce global emissions. 

Carbon Neutrality- No net greenhouse gas emissions goal. 

Carbon Offsets- Payments to compensate for unavoidable emissions. 

Geoengineering- Drastic climate alterations to combat climate change. 

Reforestation- Planting trees to absorb carbon dioxide. 

Clean Renewable Energy- Energy sources that do not emit greenhouse gases. 

Modified Agricultural Practices- Farming methods adjusted for climate resilience. 

Energy Efficiency- Using less energy for the same output. 

Flood Mitigation- Strategies to manage and reduce flood risks. 

Public Transportation- Alternative to reduce individual carbon emissions. 

Atmosphere- `Thin layer of gases surrounding the Earth. 

Troposphere- `Lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, where weather occurs. 

Stratosphere- `Layer above the troposphere, contains the ozone layer. 

Mesosphere- `Middle layer of the atmosphere, where temperatures drop. 

Thermosphere- `Upper atmosphere layer, characterized by high temperatures. 

Weather- `Short term atmospheric conditions, changes in hours or days. 

Climate- `Long term average of weather conditions in an area. 

Convective Circulation- `Air circulation caused by warm air rising and cooling. 

Temperature Inversion- `Warm air layer traps cooler air below it. 

Residence Time- `Duration a pollutant remains in the atmosphere. 

Clean Air Act- `US law regulating air quality and pollutants. 

Primary Pollutants- `Pollutants directly harmful to health or environment. 

Secondary Pollutants- `Pollutants formed by reactions of primary pollutants. 

Carbon Monoxide- `Odorless gas from incomplete combustion, harmful to health. 

Sulfur Dioxide- `Gas from burning sulfur 

Nitrogen Oxides- `Gases from high-temperature combustion, contribute to smog. 

Volatile Organic Compounds- `Carbon compounds that can produce secondary pollutants. 

Lead- `Heavy metal pollutant, damages nervous system. 

Particulates- `Small solid or liquid particles suspended in air. 

Scrubbers- `Devices that remove pollutants before emissions enter air. 

Catalytic Converters- `Reduce vehicle emissions by converting pollutants. 

Indoor Air Pollution- `Higher pollutant concentration indoors due to reduced circulation. 

Sick Building Syndrome- `Health issues caused by poor indoor air quality. 

Pet Dander- `Skin flakes from pets, contributes to indoor pollution. 

Mold and Mildew- `Fungi that can affect indoor air quality negatively. 

Outgassing- `Release of volatile compounds from new products. 

Cigarette Smoke- `Common indoor pollutant, harmful to health. 

Radon Gas- `Radioactive gas from soil, can accumulate indoors. 

Waste- `Unwanted material that results from human activity or process. 

Waste Stream- `Flow of waste from source to disposal. 

Municipal Solid Waste- `Waste materials generated by homes, small business and institutions (like schools or police departments). 

Industrial Waste- `Materials from production of consumer goods or energy production, mining or other manufacturing processes. 

Hazardous Waste- `Toxic or dangerous solid or liquid waste materials. 

Wastewater- `Liquid waste flushed or runoff from streets, farms etc. 

3 Components of Waste Management- `Minimize, Recover and recycle, Dispose of safely and effectively. 

Source Reduction- `Reduce the amount of waste generated by activity or process. 

Recovery- `Removing materials from the waste stream. 

Reuse- `Collecting waste material to reuse for the same purpose with minimal processing (Cleaning and reusing bottles). 

Recycling- `Collecting material to recover the raw material for use in manufacturing. 

Composting- `Collecting organic waste (food scraps or yard waste) for composting into fertilizer etc. 

Landfill- `Bury waste in the ground. 

Incinerator- `Burn waste. 

US Waste Generation- `US produces about 2 kg of garbage per person per day. 

Waste Reduction- `Stops the generation of the waste in the first place. 

Wastefulness by the Affluent- `Discards so much usable material that people in developing countries support themselves by scavenging this waste. 

Industrial Solid Waste- `Almost as common as municipal solid waste. 

Industrial Ecology- `Discipline that attempts to redesign industrial processes to reduce inputs (raw materials and energy) and maximize physical and economic efficiency. 

Life Cycle Analysis- `Analyze the manufacturing process from raw material and energy inputs to the waste and final disposal of product. 

Hazardous Waste Categories- `Includes Toxic waste, Ignitable, Corrosive, and Reactive. 

Surface Impoundments- `Ponds lined with plastic and clay designed to contain hazardous material until water evaporates. 

Deep Well Injection- `Pump liquid hazardous waste into porous rock below the aquifer to trap and isolate the material. 

EPA SuperFund- `Government fund for cleaning up hazardous waste sites. 

Recycling Steps- `Collection and reprocessing, Collection locations, Curbside recycling, and Materials Recovery Facilities. 

Composting Benefits- `Produces valuable mulch or humus used in place of synthetic fertilizers. 

Recycling Demand- `Without a demand for recycled materials there is no recycling. 

Environmental Health- `Environmental Factors that affect our health and quality of life. 

Physical Factors- `Naturally occurring hazards of the physical environment. 

Chemical Factors- `Exposure to chemical compounds or pollutants. 

Biological Factors- `Hazards caused by living organisms or viruses. 

Cultural Factors- `Hazards caused by choices or socioeconomic factors. 

Noninfectious Disease- `Diseases not caused by a pathogen (virus, bacteria or other parasite). 

Infectious Disease- `Diseases caused by a pathogen. 

Toxicology- `The study of chemical hazards. 

Toxicant- `Toxic substance or poison. 

Toxicity- `Degree of harm a chemical can cause. 

Carcinogens- `Substances that increase the likelihood of developing cancer. 

Mutagens- `Physical or chemical agents that cause changes to an organism's DNA. 

Teratogens- `Substances that affect unborn babies. 

Neurotoxins- `Substances that attack the nervous system. 

Pathway Inhibitors- `Block metabolic pathways preventing important biological functions from occurring. 

Endocrine Disruptors- `Interfere with the endocrine system. 

Acute Exposure- `Large exposure at one time with a strong response shortly after exposure. 

Chronic Exposure- `Low level exposure over a long time, making it harder to connect the response to the exposure. 

Bioaccumulation- `The accumulation of a material in the tissues of organisms over time. 

Biomagnification- `Materials that bioaccumulate also tend to increase in concentration as one moves up the food chain. 

Case Histories- `Look at what happened to individuals known to have been exposed to a compound. 

Epidemiological Studies- `Look at large groups of individuals known to have been exposed and compare to a large group not believed to have been exposed. 

Synergistic Effects- `Combined effect is more than just adding up the effects of the individual chemicals. 

Precautionary Principle- `Assume a new chemical is dangerous until you show that it is not. 

Food and Drug Administration- `Regulates food, cosmetics and medicine. 

Environmental Protection Agency- `Regulates pesticides. 

OSHA- `Regulates workplace hazards. 

Montreal Protocol- `Phase out and replace Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). 

Stockholm Convention- `Pushes for the phasing out and replacement of the 12 worst Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). 

Fossil Fuels- `Energy sources derived from ancient organic matter. 

Coal- `Solid fossil fuel, most abundant, high CO2 emissions. 

Oil- `Liquid fossil fuel, significant energy source globally. 

Natural Gas- `Methane, cleaner fossil fuel, used for heating. 

Carbon Dioxide- `Major greenhouse gas emitted from fossil fuel combustion. 

Energy Density- `Amount of energy stored per unit volume. 

Net Energy Gain- `Energy recovered minus energy invested in extraction. 

EROI- `Energy returned on investment in energy extraction. 

Kerogen- `Partially decomposed organic material, precursor to fossil fuels. 

Proven Recoverable Reserve- `Economically extractable fossil fuel reserves. 

Reserve to Production Ratio- `Remaining reserves divided by annual production rate. 

Peak Oil- `Maximum oil production point before decline. 

Long Emergency- `Economic crisis post 

Secondary Extraction Techniques- `Methods to recover remaining fossil fuels from wells. 

Directional Drilling- `Drilling technique accessing larger areas horizontally. 

Hydraulic Fracturing- `Fracking process to extract oil and natural gas. 

Clean Coal Technologies- `Methods to reduce coal emissions and pollutants. 

Nuclear Power- `Energy from nuclear reactions, nonrenewable fuel source. 

Uranium Enrichment- `Process of increasing U 

Nuclear Waste- `Spent fuel requiring safe long 

Renewable Energy- `Sustainable energy sources replenished naturally. 

Greenhouse Gas Emissions- `Gases contributing to climate change from energy use. 

Passive Solar Energy- `Design strategies to utilize sunlight for heating. 

Active Solar Energy- `Technologies that convert sunlight into electricity. 

Carbon Taxes- `Taxes levied to reduce carbon emissions from fuels. 

Green Collar Jobs- `Employment in renewable energy and environmental sectors. 

Oil Spills- `Environmental disasters from accidental oil releases. 

Deepwater Horizon- `2010 oil spill incident in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Yucca Mountain- `Proposed site for nuclear waste storage in Nevada. 

Solar Energy- `Energy from sunlight absorbed and converted. 

Photovoltaic Systems- `Generate electricity directly from sunlight. 

Concentrated Solar Power- `Focuses sunlight to generate heat for electricity. 

Wind Turbines- `Convert kinetic energy of wind into electricity. 

Wind Farms- `Groups of wind turbines generating electricity. 

Geothermal Energy- `Heat from Earth's interior used for power. 

Enhanced Geothermal Systems- `Drill into dry rock to extract heat. 

Tidal Energy- `Uses tidal differences to generate electricity. 

Wave Energy- `Harnesses ocean waves to produce electricity. 

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion- `Uses temperature differences in ocean water. 

Hydroelectric Power- `Electricity generated from moving water. 

Pumped Storage- `Water pumped between reservoirs for energy storage. 

Bioenergy- `Energy from burning organic materials. 

Ethanol- `Alcohol produced from fermentation of sugars. 

Biodiesel- `Diesel made from vegetable oils or fats. 

Gasification- `Heat biomass without oxygen to produce gas. 

Pyrolysis- `Heat biomass in absence of oxygen for fuel. 

Cellulosic Ethanol- `Ethanol from plant cellulose, not edible parts. 

Hydrogen Fuel Cells- `Convert hydrogen into electricity, producing water. 

Electrolysis- `Uses electricity to split water into hydrogen. 

Fuel- `Food Dichotomy 

Energy Return on Investment (EROI)- `Ratio of energy produced to energy invested. 

Environmental Impact of Dams- `Dams disrupt ecosystems and river flow. 

Storage Techniques- `Methods for storing excess energy generated. 

Run of the River- `Uses natural river flow for electricity generation. 

Hydropower Efficiency- `Hydropower has an efficiency of 80:1 EROI. 

Carbon Neutrality- `Balance of carbon emissions and absorption. 

What is geology?.- `The study of the Earth’s physical features and makeup 

What are the layers of the Earth?- `The Earth consists of the Crust, Mantle, Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Lower Mantle, Outer Core, and Inner Core. 

What drives plate tectonics?- `Convection currents in the mantle push tectonic plates across the surface of the Earth. 

What happens at divergent plate boundaries?- `Mantle pushes up causing the plates to move apart. 

What is subduction?- `A process where one tectonic plate drops below another, leading to melting and potential volcanism. 

What are the three types of plate boundaries?- `Divergent, Convergent, and Transform boundaries. 

What is the Rock Cycle?- `A process that changes and alters minerals over time. 

What are the three types of rocks?- `Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic. 

What is placer mining?- `A method used to extract minerals from streambeds using water to wash away lighter material. 

What act mandates reclamation of mining sites in the US?- `The 1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act. 

Demography- Study of changing human populations over time. 

Exponential Growth- Population growth that accelerates rapidly over time. 

J-shaped Growth Curve- Graphical representation of exponential population growth. 

Technical Revolution- Advancements in tools enhancing resource availability. 

Cultural Revolution- Changes in societal norms affecting resource use. 

Agricultural Revolution- Domestication of plants and animals for food. 

Industrial-Medical Revolution- Technological advances reducing disease and increasing food production. 

Demographic Transition- Shift from high birth/death rates to low rates. 

Replacement-Level Fertility (RLF)- Number of children needed to replace parents, slightly above 2. 

Fertility Rates- Number of live births per woman in a population. 

Age Structure- Distribution of ages within a population affecting growth. 

Urbanization- Population shift from rural to urban areas. 

Family Planning- Strategies to control family size and spacing. 

One Child Policy- China's policy to limit family size (1979-2015). 

Ecological Footprint- Area required to produce resources and absorb waste. 

Biocapacity- Earth's ability to provide resources and absorb waste. 

Global Carbon Footprint- Total carbon emissions from all human activities. 

Direct Carbon Footprint- Carbon emissions from individual daily activities. 

Ecological Deficit- When humanity's footprint exceeds Earth's biocapacity. 

Overharvesting- Unsustainable fishing leading to reduced fish populations. 

Overgrazing- Excessive grazing leading to land degradation. 

Television's Influence- Media shaping perceptions of desirable family size. 

Education and Fertility- Higher education levels correlate with lower fertility rates. 

Wealth and Fertility- Increased income often leads to reduced fertility rates. 

Future Population Predictions- U.N. estimates 8.9 billion by 2050. 

Population Stabilization- Population growth rate levels off after initial increase. 

Access to Contraceptives- Availability of birth control impacting birth rates. 

Environmental Policy- Encourages better practices to conserve the environment. 

Classical Economics- Assumes self-interest leads to societal benefit. 

Neoclassical Economics- Focuses on supply and demand for decisions. 

Cost-Benefit Analysis- Maximizes benefits while minimizing costs. 

External Costs- Costs borne by non-participants in activities. 

Discounting- Values present benefits higher than future ones. 

Economic Growth- Assumes continuous increase in goods and services. 

Environmental Economics- Aims for efficient and sustainable resource use. 

Ecological Economics- Focuses on carrying capacity and steady-state economy. 

Nonmarket Values- Benefits not typically quantified in economic terms. 

General Land Ordinances- Facilitated private ownership and resource exploitation. 

Conservation- Sustainable management of natural resources. 

Preservation- Protection of natural areas from human use. 

Yosemite Grant- First land set aside for preservation in 1864. 

National Park Service- Established in 1916 to manage national parks. 

Silent Spring- 1962 book highlighting pesticide pollution effects. 

Public Trust Doctrine- Government protects resources for public benefit. 

Clean Air Act- 1963 legislation to control air pollution. 

Endangered Species Act- 1973 law protecting threatened wildlife species. 

CITES- 1975 treaty on international trade of endangered species. 

Montreal Protocol- 1987 treaty limiting ozone-depleting substances. 

Kyoto Protocol- 1997 agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 

Green Taxes- Taxes to encourage environmentally friendly behavior. 

Polluter Pays Principle- Polluters are taxed for environmental damage. 

Emission Trading- Permit system for trading pollution allowances. 

Ecolabeling- Labels indicating environmentally friendly products. 

Greenwashing- Misleading claims of eco-friendliness by companies. 

Subsidies- Government funds to promote specific activities. 

Rebates- Cash back for purchasing energy-efficient products. 

Disposal Taxes- Fees based on waste generation for disposal. 

Sustainability- Conserving resources for future generations. 

Undernutrition- Insufficient calorie intake for energy needs. 

Malnutrition- Insufficient nutrient intake causing health issues. 

Kwashiorkor- Protein deficiency leading to severe health problems. 

Scurvy- Vitamin C deficiency causing bleeding and fatigue. 

Pellagra- Niacin deficiency leading to skin and digestive issues. 

Marasmus- Severe calorie and protein deficiency. 

Overnutrition- Excessive food intake leading to health issues. 

Obesity- Excess weight gain due to overnutrition. 

Type 2 Diabetes- Insulin resistance often linked to overnutrition. 

Agriculture- Raising crops and livestock for consumption. 

Cropland- Land designated for growing food or fiber. 

Rangeland- Land used for grazing livestock. 

Green Revolution- Modern farming practices to boost food production. 

Industrial Agriculture- Large-scale farming focused on monocultures. 

Traditional Agriculture- Polyculture farming with diverse crops. 

Soil Composition- 50% minerals, 5% organic material, 45% pore space. 

Soil Horizons- Layers of soil with distinct characteristics. 

O Horizon- Organic layer with undecomposed material. 

A Horizon- Topsoil crucial for ecosystems and agriculture. 

E Horizon- Leached layer losing minerals and organic matter. 

B Horizon- Subsoil accumulating minerals and organic material. 

C Horizon- Weathered parent material beneath the soil. 

Salinization- Salt buildup in soil from irrigation. 

Soil Fertility- Soil's capacity to support plant growth. 

Organic Fertilizers- Natural materials like manure enhancing soil fertility. 

Inorganic Fertilizers- Synthetic nutrients boosting crop yields. 

Eutrophication- Nutrient overload in water bodies causing algae blooms. 

Soil Degradation- Decline in soil quality and fertility. 

Soil Erosion- Movement of soil by wind or water. 

Desertification- Land degradation in arid regions. 

Dust Bowl- 1930s drought causing severe soil erosion. 

Sustainable Agriculture- Farming practices that maintain environmental health. 

Drip Irrigation- Water delivery system using 90% efficiency. 

Water Usage- Agriculture accounts for 70% of Colorado river removal. 

Rainwater Harvesting- Collecting rainwater for later irrigation use. 

Precision Agriculture- Monitoring and applying nutrients as needed. 

Crop Rotation- Alternating crops to restore soil nutrients. 

Cover Crops- Crops planted post-harvest to enrich soil. 

Contour Farming- Planting along land contours to reduce erosion. 

Terracing- Level sections cut into steep hillsides. 

Intercropping- Growing different crops together for soil health. 

Shelterbelts- Rows of trees or shrubs to reduce wind erosion. 

Conservation Tillage- Minimizing plowing to prevent soil erosion. 

No-Till Farming- Extreme conservation tillage with no soil disturbance. 

Conservation Reserve Program- Program to conserve vulnerable agricultural land. 

Pest- Organism that damages crops or harms humans. 

Pesticides- Synthetic chemicals designed to kill agricultural pests. 

Pesticide Treadmill- Cycle of increasing pesticide use due to resistance. 

Colony Collapse Disorder- Decline in bee populations from multiple stressors. 

Biological Control- Using natural predators to manage pest populations. 

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)- Combining methods to manage pests sustainably. 

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)- Organisms modified for traits like pest resistance. 

Meat Production- Raising livestock for food, impacting resources. 

Energy Transfer- Only 10% energy passes from plants to herbivores. 

Feedlots- Confined animal feeding operations for rapid weight gain. 

Livestock Feed- 45% of global grain used for animal feed. 

Greenhouse Gas Emissions- Meat production contributes significantly to emissions. 

Forestry- Biome dominated by high density of trees. 

Old Growth Forest- Forest with many very old trees. 

Second Growth Forest- Forest primarily composed of young trees. 

Deciduous Forest- Forests where trees lose leaves seasonally. 

Temperate Deciduous Forest- Trees lose leaves in cold season. 

Tropical Deciduous Forest- Trees lose leaves in dry season. 

Rainforest- Forest with high annual precipitation. 

Coniferous Forest- Forests dominated by conifer trees. 

Boreal Forest- Northernmost forest, often conifer-dominated. 

Forest Resources- Includes wood, medicine, fiber, and food. 

Ecosystem Services- Benefits like carbon storage and oxygen production. 

Deforestation- Widespread removal of forests, reducing biodiversity. 

Plantation- Cultivated area for specific tree species. 

Clearcutting- Removing all trees from a plot. 

Selective Cutting- Removing only some trees from a plot. 

Prescribed Burns- Controlled fires to promote ecosystem health. 

Habitat Fragmentation- Breaking habitat into smaller, isolated pieces. 

Edge Effect- Increased susceptibility to invasive species at edges. 

Corridors- Connections between habitat fragments for gene flow. 

Maximum Sustainable Yield- Maximizing long-term resource harvesting potential. 

Ecosystem Based Management- Maintaining ecosystem integrity during resource extraction. 

Sustainable Forestry- Using forests sustainably while providing resources. 

Sustainable Certification- Monitoring practices to ensure sustainable forestry. 

Biosphere Reserves- Areas managed to benefit biodiversity and indigenous peoples. 

World Heritage Sites- Areas recognized for biological or cultural significance. 

Oceans- Contain 97% of Earth's water, mostly saltwater. 

Desalinization- Process to remove salt from seawater for use. 

Ocean Currents- Movements of ocean water affecting climate patterns. 

Upwelling- Nutrient-rich water rises to the ocean surface. 

Downwelling- Water sinks, transporting dissolved gases to depths. 

Gulf Stream- Warm ocean current warming Europe from the Atlantic. 

North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW)- Dense, salty water formed by evaporation in North Atlantic. 

El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)- Climate pattern affecting Pacific Ocean currents and weather. 

Intertidal Zone- Area between high and low tide lines. 

Estuaries- Where freshwater rivers meet and mix with ocean water. 

Mangroves- Coastal wetlands dominated by salt-tolerant mangrove trees. 

Salt Marshes- Intertidal zones with salt-adapted grasses and muddy substrate. 

Kelp Forests- Submerged ecosystems dominated by brown algae. 

Coral Reefs- Biodiverse submerged ecosystems in tropical waters. 

Open Ocean- Deep ocean areas away from coastal regions. 

Phytoplankton- Primary photosynthetic organisms in the open ocean. 

Zooplankton- Small animals that feed on phytoplankton. 

Benthic Zone- Ocean bottom where light cannot reach. 

Marine Snow- Organic material falling from upper ocean layers. 

Oxygen Source- Oceans produce significant oxygen for Earth's atmosphere. 

Carbon Sink- Oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 

Fisheries- Areas for catching fish, facing overfishing issues. 

Maximum Sustainable Yield- Fishing management aimed at sustainable fish populations. 

Bycatch- Unwanted species caught alongside target fish. 

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)- Oceanic reserves for conserving marine biodiversity. 

Ocean Acidification- Decrease in ocean pH due to absorbed CO2. 

Carbonic Acid- Formed when CO2 combines with ocean water. 

Saltwater- 97.5% of Earth's water is saltwater. 

Surface Water- Water found in lakes and streams. 

Groundwater- Water stored underground in aquifers. 

Unconfined Aquifer- Aquifer not trapped between impermeable rock. 

Confined Aquifer- Water trapped under pressure between rock layers. 

Great Lakes- Contain 21% of the world's fresh surface water. 

Lake Baikal- Contains 20% of the world's fresh surface water. 

Aquifer- Porous rock that holds groundwater. 

Zone of Aeration- Layer filled with water and air. 

Zone of Saturation- Layer completely filled with water. 

Water Table- Boundary between aeration and saturation zones. 

Recharge Zone- Area where water enters an aquifer. 

Watershed- Area where water drains into a common outlet. 

Floodplain- Area periodically inundated by river flooding. 

Levees- Structures built to control river flooding. 

Wetlands- Ecosystems that hold excess water. 

Swamps- Wetlands dominated by forested areas. 

Marshes- Wetlands with reeds and open water. 

Bogs- Wetlands with floating vegetation mats. 

Vernal Pools- Temporarily wet wetlands supporting unique species. 

Consumptive Usage- Water removed without returning to source. 

Nonconsumptive Usage- Temporary removal of water without depletion. 

Desalinization- Process of removing salts from seawater. 

Nutrient Pollution- Excess nutrients disrupt ecosystem balance. 

Harmful Algal Blooms- Toxic algae growth caused by nutrient runoff. 

Eutrophication- Nutrient overload leading to oxygen depletion. 

Thermal Pollution- Heating of water affecting aquatic life. 

Point Source Pollution- Pollution from a single identifiable source. 

Non-point Source Pollution- Pollution from multiple diffuse sources. 

Sewage Treatment- Process to reduce sewage waste in water. 

Primary Treatment- Removes solids using settling tanks. 

Secondary Treatment- Uses microbes to break down contaminants. 

Groundwater Pollution- Contamination difficult to treat due to low oxygen. 

Clean Water Act- Legislation aimed at improving water quality. 

Urbanization - Population shift from rural to urban areas. 

Sprawl - Low density development spreading from urban centers. 

Transportation Issues - Increased reliance on personal vehicles due to sprawl. 

Pollution - Car emissions contribute to environmental degradation. 

Health Impacts - Air pollution worsens respiratory conditions. 

Land Development - Destruction of habitats and ecosystems from sprawl. 

Urban Planning - Designing cities for efficiency and functionality. 

Regional Planning - Urban planning concepts applied to larger areas. 

Zoning - Designating land for specific functions like residential. 

Urban Growth Boundaries - Limits new development to protect surrounding lands. 

Gentrification - Wealthier segments transform neighborhoods, displacing poor. 

Smart Growth - Revitalizing neglected urban areas affected by sprawl. 

New Urbanism - Designing walkable communities with close amenities. 

Transportation Options - Bicycles and public transit enhance urban sustainability. 

Green Buildings - Structures designed to minimize environmental impact. 

LEED Certification - Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design standard. 

Environmental Justice - Addressing environmental inequality between communities. 

Urban Heat Island Effect - Higher temperatures in urban areas compared to rural. 

Resource Sinks - Urban areas consume resources from outside. 

Cultural Opportunities - Urban areas foster innovation and community collaboration. 

Urban Ecology - Building cities to function like ecosystems. 

Climate - Long-term average atmospheric conditions in an area. 

Weather - Day-to-day specific atmospheric conditions. 

Global Climate Change - Changes in various climate aspects globally. 

Global Warming - Increase in Earth's average temperature. 

Factors Influencing Climate - Sun, atmosphere, and oceans affect climate. 

Greenhouse Gases - Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. 

Common Greenhouse Gases - Includes CO2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, and CFCs. 

Industrial Revolution - Period marking significant greenhouse gas increase. 

Ice Core Data - Records atmospheric gas levels over 800,000 years. 

Fossil Fuels - Burning releases CO2 and Nitric Oxides. 

Deforestation - Removes CO2 sinks, increasing atmospheric CO2. 

Radiative Forcing - Change in thermal energy due to factors. 

Positive Radiative Forcing - Heats the planet by increasing thermal energy. 

Negative Radiative Forcing - Cools the planet by reducing thermal energy. 

Milankovitch Cycles - Periodic changes in Earth's movements affecting climate. 

Proxy Measurements - Indirect evidence to infer past climate conditions. 

Climate Models - Computer simulations predicting future climate scenarios. 

Consensus Among Scientists - Agreement that climate change is human-caused. 

Extreme Weather - More powerful storms becoming increasingly common. 

Ocean Acidification - Drop in pH due to increased CO2 levels. 

Coral Bleaching - Loss of coral color due to stress factors. 

Health Impacts - Increased diseases and respiratory issues from pollution. 

Species Composition Changes - Alterations in community species due to climate. 

Ecosystem Shifts - Communities change as species adapt to climate. 

Glacial and Sea Ice Changes - Melting ice contributes to rising sea levels. 

Sea Level Rise - Affects coastal areas and ecosystems globally. 

Nutritional Quality Decrease - Increased photosynthesis may lower plant nutrition. 

Economic Costs - Financial impacts from climate-related disasters and protection. 

Health Costs - Increased health issues due to climate impacts. 

Climate Skeptics - Individuals denying climate change due to interests. 

Mitigation - Efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 

Adaptation - Strategies to adjust to climate change effects. 

Carbon Footprint - Total carbon dioxide emissions from lifestyle. 

Transportation Emissions - Accounts for 35% of US carbon emissions. 

Electricity Production Emissions - Another 35% of US emissions from electricity. 

Diet Impact - Animal products contribute significantly to emissions. 

Carbon Pricing - Economic cost on carbon emissions to incentivize reductions. 

Carbon Taxation - Tax on carbon content of fossil fuels. 

Fee and Dividend - Carbon tax revenue reduces public taxes. 

Carbon Trading - Permits for carbon emissions bought and sold. 

Cap and Trade - Pollution allowances traded among companies. 

Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative - Regulates emissions in several US states. 

Kyoto Protocol - 1997 agreement for mandatory greenhouse gas reductions. 

Paris Accord - 2015 commitment to reduce global emissions. 

Carbon Neutrality - No net greenhouse gas emissions goal. 

Carbon Offsets - Payments to compensate for unavoidable emissions. 

Geoengineering - Drastic climate alterations to combat climate change. 

Reforestation - Planting trees to absorb carbon dioxide. 

Clean Renewable Energy - Energy sources that do not emit greenhouse gases. 

Modified Agricultural Practices - Farming methods adjusted for climate resilience. 

Energy Efficiency - Using less energy for the same output. 

Flood Mitigation - Strategies to manage and reduce flood risks. 

Public Transportation - Alternative to reduce individual carbon emissions. 

Evolution - Change in species over time through adaptation. 

Fixed Species Concept - Early belief that species are unchanging. 

Aristotle's Hierarchy - Organisms ranked from least to most complex. 

Georges Louis LeClerc - Proposed species differentiation from a few founders. 

Fossil Evidence - Demonstrates extinct species and Earth's age. 

Catastrophism - Theory that catastrophes cause species extinction. 

Louis Agassiz - Estimated 50 catastrophes since Earth's creation. 

Uniformitarianism - Geologic processes occur slowly over time. 

Jean Baptiste Lamarck - Proposed inheritance of acquired characteristics. 

Natural Selection - Survival of individuals with favorable traits. 

Thomas Malthus - Observed population growth limited by resources. 

Darwin's Voyage - HMS Beagle trip that influenced evolutionary theory. 

Adaptation - Species suited to their environment. 

Intermediate Organisms - Organisms showing traits of two different types. 

Comparative Anatomy - Similar structures in related organisms. 

Vestigial Structures - Remnants of ancestral structures with no current function. 

Analogous Structures - Similar appearance but different evolutionary origins. 

Embryology - Similar early development in vertebrate embryos. 

Biochemistry - Shared biochemical processes among all organisms. 

Genetic Drift - Random changes in allele frequencies in populations. 

Founder's Effect - New population established by a few individuals. 

Population Bottleneck - Drastic reduction in population size followed by recovery. 

Stabilizing Selection - Favors average traits, reducing extremes. 

Directional Selection - One extreme trait becomes more common. 

Disruptive Selection - Both extreme traits favored over intermediate traits. 

Artificial Selection - Selective breeding for desirable traits in organisms. 

Natural Selection Mechanism - Process by which favorable traits increase in frequency. 

Darwin's Theory - Evolution occurs through natural selection and adaptation. 

Ecology - Study of the interrelationships of organisms with each other and their environment. 

Biotic - Living organisms. 

Abiotic - Nonliving factors. 

Ecosystem - All organisms and the abiotic environment within a defined area. 

Species - All organisms capable of interbreeding and producing viable offspring under natural conditions. 

Population - All members of a species found in the same area at the same time. 

Population Size - Number of individuals in a population. 

Population Density - Number of individuals per unit area. 

Distribution - How individuals in a population are spread across the environment. 

Uniform Distribution - Constant distance maintained between individuals; common among territorial animals defending scarce resources or breeding territories. 

Clumped Distribution - Includes family and social groups. 

Random Distribution - Rare, exhibited by individuals that do not form social groups; occurs when resources are not scarce enough to require territorial spacing. 

Population Growth - Change in population size over time. 

Population Growth Rate (r) - Change in population size per unit time. 

Birth (b) - Adds individuals to a population. 

Death (d) - Removes individuals from the population. 

Growth Rate Equation - r= (b+i)-(d+e) 

Birth Rate (b) - The average number of births per individual per unit time. 

Death Rate (d) - The proportion of individuals dying per unit time. 

Net Population Growth (G) - Calculated by multiplying growth rate (r) by the original population size (N). 

Biotic Potential - The maximum rate at which a population could increase when birth rate is maximal and death rate minimal. 

Environmental Resistance - Factors that limit population growth. 

Density Independent Factors - Limit population growth regardless of population size. 

Density Dependent Factors - Increase in strength of factor as population size increases. 

Exponential Growth - Occurs when a population continuously grows at a fixed percentage (r) of its size at the beginning of each time period. 

Logistic Growth - Pattern where populations increase to the maximum number sustainable by their environment. 

Carrying Capacity (K) - The maximum size that can be sustained for an extended time without damage to the ecosystem. 

K-selected Species - Species whose populations tend to remain stable and near the carrying capacity of the environment. 

R-selected Species - Species that have populations that often fluctuate in size over time. 

Survivorship - The pattern of survival among individuals of a population over their lifetimes. 

Life Table - Describes the pattern of survivorship of a group of individuals over their lifetimes. 

Survivorship Curve - Produced by graphing life table survivorship data. 

Type I Survivorship Curve - Late loss. 

Type II Survivorship Curve - Constant loss. 

Type III Survivorship Curve - Early loss. 

Ecosystem - A community of living organisms and their environment. 

Energy Flow - One-way transfer of energy through trophic levels. 

Nutrient Cycling - Continuous movement of nutrients within ecosystems. 

Producers - Organisms that create energy via photosynthesis. 

Consumers - Organisms that obtain energy by eating others. 

Primary Consumers - Herbivores that eat producers for energy. 

Secondary Consumers - Carnivores that eat primary consumers. 

Trophic Level - Each step in a food chain or web. 

Food Chain - Linear representation of energy transfer in ecosystems. 

Food Web - Complex network of feeding relationships in ecosystems. 

Detritivores - Organisms that feed on dead organic matter. 

Decomposers - Fungi and bacteria that break down organic material. 

Biodegradable Materials - Substances that can be broken down by decomposers. 

Bioaccumulation - Accumulation of substances in an organism's body. 

Biomagnification - Increase of toxins in organisms up the food chain. 

Biome - Large area with similar climate and vegetation. 

Tropical Rainforest - Hot, wet biome with high biodiversity. 

Savannah - Grassland biome with scattered trees and modest rainfall. 

Desert - Very dry biome with low productivity. 

Chaparral - Coastal biome with drought-resistant vegetation. 

Temperate Deciduous Forest - Forest biome with distinct seasons and leaf-shedding trees. 

Temperate Rainforest - Forest biome with abundant rainfall and mild winters. 

Taiga - Boreal forest biome with coniferous trees. 

Arctic Tundra - Cold biome with permafrost and limited vegetation. 

Alpine Tundra - Tundra found at high mountain elevations. 

Energy Loss - 90% of energy lost at each trophic level. 

Fixation - Process of converting matter from inorganic to biotic. 

Abiotic Factors - Non-living components of an ecosystem. 

Biotic Factors - Living components of an ecosystem. 

Community - All interacting populations within an ecosystem. 

Biosphere - Everywhere that living organisms can be found on Earth. 

Habitat - Where a species lives. 

Niche - Encompasses all aspects of a species' way of life, including physical home or habitat, physical and chemical environmental factors necessary for survival, how the species acquires its energy and other resources, and all the other species it interacts with. 

Competition - Where individuals compete for access to resources. 

Predation - Eating of one species by another; prey is harmed by this interaction and predator is benefited. 

Symbiosis - When 2 or more individuals of different species have intimate interaction. 

Coevolution - Where the interactions of two or more species influence the evolution of each species. 

Intraspecific Competition - Competition between individuals of the same species for access to resources. 

Interspecific Competition - Occurs between individuals of different species; tends to make niches narrower. 

Scramble Competition - Where individuals vie for resources that get used up by the first individual to find them. 

Interference Competition - Where individuals directly interact over a resource with the superior competitor getting the resource. 

Competitive Exclusion Principle - No two species may occupy the exact same niche. 

Resource Partitioning - Competition between species can lead to reduction on niche overlap by each competitor specializing on some subset of the resource. 

Parasitism - One individual (Parasite) benefits from the interaction while the other (Host) is harmed. 

Commensalism - One individual benefits and the other is not harmed or benefited. 

Mutualism - Both individuals benefit from the interaction. 

Predator-Prey Cycles - Population size of predator and prey vary over time. 

Food Driven Model - Prey depletes its food and declines; food recovers and prey increases; predator population tracks prey population. 

Predator Driven Model - Predators deplete the prey and begin to starve; predator population declines and prey population recovers. 

Antipredator Defenses - Traits that decrease a prey's chance of being eaten. 

Warning Coloration - Prey has bright noticeable coloration to alert predators. 

Batesian Mimicry - Prey species mimics a species with warning coloration but lacks the secondary defense itself. 

Muellerian Mimicry - Two species each with a defense mimic each other. 

Concealment, Camouflage or Environmental Mimicry - Prey disguises itself in the environment. 

Predator Mimicry - Prey mimics its predator. 

Startle Coloration - Prey utilizes markings designed to shock or startle the predator giving it a chance to get away. 

Aggressive Mimicry - Predator disguises itself as a benign aspect of the environment. 

Biodiversity - Variety and variability of living organisms. 

Genetic Diversity - Variation in genes within a species. 

Species Diversity - Combination of species richness, abundance, and evenness. 

Species Richness - Number of species in a community. 

Species Abundance - Relative representation of a species in a community. 

Species Evenness - Equality of species abundances in a community. 

High Productivity Ecosystems - Ecosystems with high species richness and abundance. 

Low Productivity Ecosystems - Ecosystems with low species richness and abundance. 

Quadrat - Sample all items within a defined space. 

Transect - Count occurrences along a defined line. 

Random Sampling - Samples scattered randomly in the study area. 

Stratified Sampling - Samples taken at regular defined distances. 

Stratified Random Sampling - Random samples from defined grid intersections. 

HIPPO - Acronym for threats to biodiversity: Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Overpopulation, Pollution, Overexploitation. 

Habitat Destruction - Loss of natural habitats due to human activities. 

Invasive Species - Non-native species that disrupt local ecosystems. 

Pollution - Contamination affecting wildlife and human health. 

Overexploitation - Harvesting populations faster than they can replenish. 

Biodegradable Materials - Materials that can be broken down by decomposers. 

Bioaccumulation - Accumulation of substances in organism's tissues. 

Biomagnification - Increase of pollutants in organisms up the food chain. 

Overpopulation - Excessive population growth impacting ecosystems. 

Habitat Fragmentation - Splitting of habitats threatening wildlife survival. 

Ecosystem Services - Benefits provided by ecosystems to humans. 

Heavy Metals - Toxic elements that can bioaccumulate in organisms. 

Pesticides - Chemicals used to kill pests, harmful to ecosystems. 

Scientific Method - Rules and procedures for investigating phenomena. 

Assumptions of the Scientific Method - Natural Laws exist and can be understood. 

Assumptions of the Scientific Method - Natural Laws are consistent in time and space. 

Assumptions of the Scientific Method - Two observers in the same frame of reference will perceive a phenomenon the same way. 

Preliminary Information - What is the phenomenon of interest? How does it relate to other phenomena? What do we already know about the phenomenon? What do we not know about this phenomenon? 

Observations - What can we see about the phenomenon? What can we measure about the phenomenon? How does the phenomenon affect or interact with other phenomena? 

Observations - What is apparent cause of the phenomenon? What are the effects of the phenomenon? 

Hypothesis - What are the possible explanations for the phenomenon? 

Hypothesis - All good hypotheses make predictions about their phenomenon. 

Experiment - Test the predictions of the hypothesis. 

Data - Information collected during the course of the experiment. 

Results - Outcome of the experiment. 

Conclusion - Based on the Data and Results of the experiment we either accept or reject our hypothesis as an explanation of the phenomenon until a better explanation to the data is found. 

Preliminary Information - Our conclusions become the new preliminary information for our next investigation. 

Experimental Design - It is important that any experiment is properly designed. Errors in experimental design can invalidate your conclusions. 

Hypotheses in Experimental Design - H1: Possible explanation. The explanation we think might be true. H0: Null Hypothesis - Default answer if the experiment doesn't support the H1. 

Independent Variable - Factor controlled by the experimenter. 

Dependent Variable - Factor changed as a result of the Independent variable. 

Treatments - 2 or more replicates of an experiment. 

Control - Treatment used as a standard of comparison. Shows what would happen in the absence of the actions of the dependent variable. 

Experimental Treatment - Treatment that differs from the Control only by the independent variable. It should differ from the Control as predicted by the hypothesis. 

Comparisons in Experimental Design - Comparisons between the Experimental and Control Treatments allow us to decide between H1 and H0. 

Hypothesis - Educated guess. 

Theory - Well tested and accepted hypothesis. Theories have stood the test of time. Does not mean the theory is absolutely true. 

International System of Measurements - Standardized system of measurements based on units of ten. 

Base Units - Mass- Grams (g), Length-Meters (m), Volume-Liters (l), Temperature-Celsius (oC). 

Decimal Movement - Kilo (k), Hecta(h), Deka(D), Base unit, deci(d), centi(c), milli(m) with respective factors of ten. 

Graph Reading - Graphs show how the Dependent Variable (y-axis) changes along with the Independent variable (x-axis). 

Correlation - Correlation does not mean causation. 

Environmental Science - Interdisciplinary study of environmental systems and solutions. 

Interdisciplinary - Involving multiple academic disciplines for comprehensive understanding. 

Deforestation - Clearing forests leading to ecological and societal collapse. 

Silent Spring - 1962 book by Rachel Carson warning about chemical dangers. 

Cuyahoga River Fire - 1969 pollution incident where river caught fire. 

Montreal Protocol - 1987 treaty banning most CFCs to protect ozone layer. 

Atmospheric Science - Study of Earth's atmosphere interactions with other systems. 

Ecology - Study of interactions between organisms and their environment. 

Conservation Biology - Focus on endangered species and extinction prevention. 

Environmental Chemistry - Study of chemical changes and contamination in environments. 

Hydrology - Study of water movement in natural systems. 

Ethics - Study of right and wrong in human actions. 

Golden Rule - Ethical principle: treat others as you wish to be treated. 

Principle of Utility - Actions are right if they benefit the majority. 

Relativism - Ethical standards vary by culture and context. 

Environmental Ethics - Applying ethics to human-environment interactions. 

Anthropocentrism - Only human interests have intrinsic value. 

Biocentrism - Non-human organisms have inherent value. 

Ecocentrism - Value placed on entire ecosystems and processes. 

Preservation Ethic - Natural world should be preserved for its own sake. 

Conservation Ethic - Natural resources should be managed for long-term benefit. 

Land Ethic - Actions should preserve the integrity of biotic communities. 

Environmental Justice - Fair treatment of all people regardless of demographics. 

Waste Incinerator - Facility often located in poor communities, causing health risks. 

Deepwater Horizon - 2010 oil spill disaster affecting marine ecosystems. 

Fukushima Disaster - 2011 nuclear disaster impacting environmental safety.