Chapter 16 Notes: Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East

Chapter 16: Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East

Overview

This chapter focuses on the relationships between Europe, specifically the European Union (EU) and its member states, and the Mediterranean Middle East, which includes countries in North Africa and the Middle East that border the Mediterranean Sea. Understanding these relationships requires an examination of Europe’s colonial legacy, geographical proximity, and the complex ties that link Europe with this region.

Key Aspects of European-Middle Eastern Relations

1. Colonial Legacy: The history of European colonialism in the region plays a significant role in shaping current relations. After the Ottoman Empire's collapse post-World War I, British and French imperial dominion was established, which lasted until the mid-20th century. This history has also contributed to significant immigrant communities in Europe.

2. Geographical Proximity: Europe is only a short distance from the Middle East, with the Strait of Gibraltar separating Spain from Morocco by about 14 km. This closeness has implications for trade and migration, with European governments concerned about conflicts in the MENA region affecting stability and leading to migrations towards Europe, especially in the aftermath of the 2011 Arab uprisings.

3. Complex Relations: Relations are multilayered due to the EU's structure as a non-state entity composed of 27 member countries, each with differing foreign policy preferences. This complexity is exacerbated by bilateral agreements between individual EU states and MENA countries and the EU's reliance on trade agreements, particularly in industrial goods.

4. Current Challenges: Recent events, including the Arab uprisings and the influx of refugees, have highlighted the tensions within Europe over immigration policies and human rights. The responses by some European countries have included restrictive policies towards asylum seekers, particularly post-2015 refugee crisis.

Core-Periphery Dynamics

Conceptually, the relationship between Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East can be understood through the lens of core-periphery dynamics:

• Economic Dependence: MENA states typically rely heavily on European trade and aid, experiencing a specialism whereby Europe exports manufactured goods while importing raw materials and hydrocarbons from the MENA region. This dependency reflects broader neocolonial trends where European interests prioritize stability over human rights and democratization.
• Geopolitical Interests: Europe's primary interests in the region revolve around energy security and avoiding conflict spill-over. This dependency on stable MENA relations often leads to tacit support of authoritarian regimes that promise stability in exchange for cooperation on migration and security.
• Trade Patterns: A hub-and-spoke model characterizes trade relations, where Europe sits at the center of interactions with individual MENA states, which often lack strong economic ties among themselves.

Europe’s Colonial Influence

The Ottoman Empire held sway in the Middle East for about four centuries before European nations intervened, drastically reshaping political boundaries and governance structures post-imperial rule. As a consequence of colonial ambitions, various regional conflicts, such as the unresolved Israeli-Palestinian issue, emerged and persist today:

• Imperial Actions: Major powers (Britain, France, Italy, and Spain) divided Ottoman territories, ignoring ethnic and cultural lines, leading to tensions still visible in contemporary geopolitics.
• Mandates and Independence: Following World War I, the League of Nations established mandates in Palestine, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. These powers retained significant control even as these countries gained nominal independence in the mid-20th century.

Evolution of Europe-Middle East Relations

Post-Colonial Developments and Cold War Influence

• Shift in Power Dynamics: The US emerged as the central power in the region post-World War II, winning influence as Europe receded. The US established connections with Israel, balancing interests against Arab nationalism that emerged from anti-colonial sentiments.
• European Integration: Amidst the Cold War and the subsequent European integration process, the EU sought to redefine relationships with former colonies, granting trade partnerships and support while maintaining a hierarchy of diplomatic ties based on geopolitical interests.

The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP)

Launched in 1995, the EMP aimed to create a shared area of peace, democracy, and prosperity through comprehensive collaboration:

• Three-Basket Structure: Addressing political, economic, and cultural relationships in a bid to build lasting ties and establish a free trade area.
• Challenges: Political instability and the reluctance of MENA governments to implement required reforms have impeded progress, especially in terms of economic liberalization and democratization.

Summary of Changes Post-Arab Spring

The Arab uprisings prompted a reevaluation of EU strategies:

• Diverse Responses: European countries were caught off guard and had mixed responses to regime changes across the region. Some countries pushed for stability at the expense of democratic principles, while struggling to manage the influx of refugees.
• Continued Economic Interests: Economic ties persist with ongoing partnerships between the EU and MENA states, despite the rise of more authoritarian regimes willing to cooperate with Europe on migration control and security.

Migration and Border Control Policies

Migration management has become a significant aspect of EU-MENA relations:

• Restrictive Policies: In the wake of increasing migration, EU countries have enacted tighter border policies, often funding MENA governments in exchange for cooperation on preventing irregular migration and deportation of migrants.
• Human Rights Concerns: Close cooperation has, unsurprisingly, led to complicity in human rights abuses as authoritarian regimes are supported in the name of stability, raising ethical questions about European policies.

The Role in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

Europe's historical ties to the Palestinian issue complicate its position in the conflict:

• Advocacy for Two-State Solution: The EU has consistently backed a two-state resolution based on international law, but has often been sidelined by the US, which has taken a dominant role in negotiations.
• Funding Initiatives: The EU remains one of the largest financial supporters of Palestinian state-building yet faces challenges in balancing these efforts with political realities in the region.

Conclusion

The relationship between Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East continues to be defined by historical legacies, economic strategies, and frameworks of power:

• Interconnectedness: Economic interdependence remains, with Europe as the dominant partner while the instability in MENA raises ongoing challenges for European security and humanitarian considerations.
• Future Outlook: The EU's ability to navigate these complex relationships and address socio-economic challenges will determine the trajectory of future disorder and cooperation in the region.

Key Events Timeline

• 1798-1801: Napoleon attempts to conquer Egypt
• 1830: France begins colonization of Algeria
• 1881: Tunisia becomes French protectorate
• 1911: Italy conquers Libya from Ottomans
• 1948: Establishment of Israel and first Arab-Israeli war
• 1995: Launch of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP)
• 2015-2016: Peak of the refugee crisis
• 2021: EU launches the New Agenda for the Mediterranean