Untitled Flashcards Set

Pezdek – Schema and Memory for Real-World Places

Pezdek's study investigated how schemas (mental frameworks) influence memory recall. Participants were taken to either a preschool classroom or a graduate student office, where they spent one minute observing the room. Afterward, they were asked to recall items they saw in the room. The study revealed that people’s memory of objects was influenced by the setting’s schema. For example, when participants were placed in a preschool classroom, they were more likely to recall objects typical of a classroom (like crayons), even if they weren’t in the room. The findings show how schemas influence memory and can lead to false recall of objects that fit the expected schema of a setting.

Bartlett – War of the Ghosts

Bartlett's research focused on how memory is influenced by cultural schemas. Participants read a Native American folk tale, War of the Ghosts, and were asked to recall it after varying time intervals. The study found that participants often altered details of the story to fit their own cultural context. For instance, they changed unfamiliar names or concepts to ones they were more familiar with. The results demonstrate how memory is reconstructive, meaning that we don't always remember details accurately but instead fill in gaps with information from our own schemas, influenced by cultural backgrounds.

Anderson and Pichert – Recall Following a Shift in Perspective

This study explored how changing perspectives can influence memory recall. Participants read a story about a house, either from the perspective of a burglar or a potential homebuyer. After an initial recall test, some participants were asked to recall the story from a different perspective. Those who shifted perspectives were able to recall new details relevant to the new perspective, showing that memory recall is flexible and can be influenced by the perspective from which an event is viewed. This suggests that schemas and context can shape memory retrieval, highlighting the importance of perspective in cognitive processing.

Ward – Brain Drain

Ward’s study examined the impact of smartphone usage on cognitive performance. Participants were asked to complete a cognitive task (the OSpan task) while their phones were placed in different locations: on their desk, in their pocket/bag, or in another room. The study found that cognitive performance (measured by the OSpan score) was significantly worse when the phone was within reach (on the desk or in the pocket), compared to when it was in another room. This study highlights how distractions, especially those from technology, can affect working memory and fluid intelligence. It also suggests that the mere presence of a smartphone can deplete cognitive resources.

Rosser – Video Games on Training Surgeons

Rosser’s research investigated whether playing video games could improve laparoscopic surgery skills. Surgeons were asked about their video game-playing habits and then participated in a series of laparoscopic drills. Their performance was measured in terms of speed, errors, and overall score. The study found a positive correlation between video game experience and better surgical performance, particularly in tasks requiring hand-eye coordination and fine motor skills. This suggests that video games, especially those requiring complex interactions, may enhance certain cognitive and motor skills beneficial in real-world tasks.

Simons and Chabris – Gorillas in Our Midst

In this study, participants watched a video of two teams passing a basketball and were asked to count the number of passes made by one team. During the video, a person in a gorilla suit walked through the scene. Despite the obvious presence of the gorilla, about half of the participants failed to notice it. This study highlights the concept of inattentional blindness, showing how our attention is selective and that we are likely to miss things that fall outside the focus of our attention. This is important for understanding how cognitive processes like attention influence perception.

Risen – Illusory Correlations and Stereotypes

Risen's study examined how illusory correlations could be formed when people are asked to make judgments based on stereotype-consistent information. Participants watched a video showing either a South Asian or a Caucasian student exhibiting pushy behavior. The study found that participants formed stronger impressions of the student based on their stereotype, even though the behavior was not correlated with the student’s ethnicity. This study highlights how cognitive biases, such as stereotypes, can affect the way we process information and make judgments, showing the power of heuristics in decision-making.

Marchiori – Portion Size on Food Intake: Anchoring and Adjustment

Marchiori’s research focused on how portion size affects food intake, specifically in relation to the anchoring effect. Participants were given either a small or large portion of food (e.g., soup, beefsteak, or pasta). The study found that when participants were given larger portions, they tended to consume more, even when they were not hungry. This demonstrates the anchoring effect, where people’s decisions are influenced by initial information (in this case, portion size), affecting how much food they choose to eat. It shows the impact of cognitive biases on everyday decision-making, such as eating habits.

Anderson & Dill – Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts (Study 1)

This study explored the relationship between violent video games and aggressive thoughts. Researchers found that long-term exposure to violent video games was correlated with increased aggression in real life. Participants who frequently played violent video games exhibited higher levels of aggression, delinquency, and negative worldviews. This study supports the hypothesis that exposure to violent media can influence cognitive processes, leading to more aggressive thoughts and behaviors.

Anderson & Dill – Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts (Study 2)

In a follow-up study, Anderson and Dill focused on how the type of video game (violent or non-violent) and individual differences (such as trait irritability) influenced aggression. Participants who played violent video games were more likely to exhibit aggressive thoughts and behaviors, particularly if they had high levels of trait irritability. This supports the idea that video games can influence cognitive processes like aggression and decision-making, especially in individuals predisposed to irritability.

Atkinson and Shiffrin – Multi-Store Model of Memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model of memory, which suggests that memory consists of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Information flows through these stores in a linear process, with each store having different characteristics, such as capacity and duration. The model emphasized that rehearsal is key to transferring information from short-term to long-term memory. Though influential, the model has been criticized for being overly simplistic and not accounting for more complex cognitive processes like working memory.

Corkin – H.M.

Corkin’s research on patient H.M. provided valuable insights into the role of the hippocampus in memory. H.M. underwent surgery to treat epilepsy, which resulted in severe anterograde amnesia, preventing him from forming new long-term memories. Through a series of cognitive tests, Corkin found that while H.M. was unable to create new declarative memories, he could still perform tasks that required procedural memory, suggesting that different types of memory are supported by different brain regions. This study was crucial in understanding the distinction between different memory systems.

Squire – Memory Systems

Squire’s research investigated the different types of memory systems, specifically declarative and procedural memory. He found that declarative memory (which involves facts and events) relies on the hippocampus, while procedural memory (involving skills and actions) is supported by other brain structures. His study reinforced the idea that memory is not a single system but involves multiple systems, each with distinct functions. This finding has been instrumental in the development of our understanding of memory’s complexity.

Shaw – False Memories of Committing a Crime

Shaw’s study explored how false memories can be implanted in individuals. Participants were either assigned a false memory of committing a crime (such as assault or theft) or a non-criminal event. The study found that participants could be convinced to believe they had committed a crime, even though it never occurred. This highlights the malleability of memory and how it can be influenced by external sources, demonstrating the reconstructive nature of memory and how easily it can be altered by suggestion.

Loftus & Palmer – Reconstructive Memory

Loftus and Palmer’s study examined how language can influence memory recall, particularly in relation to car accidents. Participants watched a video of a car crash and were then asked questions using different verbs, such as "smashed" or "hit." The study found that the verb used influenced participants’ memory of the event, with those who heard the word "smashed" being more likely to incorrectly recall seeing broken glass. This study demonstrates how memory can be distorted by leading questions, supporting the theory of reconstructive memory.

Brown and Kulick – Flashbulb Memory

Brown and Kulick’s research focused on the concept of flashbulb memories, which are vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events. Participants were asked to recall events such as the assassination of John F. Kennedy and were found to have clear, long-lasting memories of these events. The study suggests that emotional arousal plays a significant role in the formation of flashbulb memories, with highly emotional events being more likely to be remembered in great detail.

Neisser – Phantom Flashbulbs

Neisser’s research on flashbulb memories explored whether the accuracy of flashbulb memories diminishes over time. Participants were asked to recall their memories of the Challenger space shuttle disaster both shortly after the event and several months later. The study found that participants’ memories were often inaccurate, despite their high confidence in them. This study challenges the idea that flashbulb memories are more accurate than regular memories, suggesting that confidence in memory does not always correlate with its accuracy.

Talarico – Flashbulb Memory

Talarico’s study on flashbulb memory focused on the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Participants were asked to recall their memories of the event at three different time intervals: 7 days, 42 days, and 224 days. The study found that while participants were confident in the vividness and accuracy of their memories, their recollections became less consistent over time. This suggests that while emotional events may produce strong memories, these memories can still become distorted and less reliable over time.

Kahneman – Thinking, Fast and Slow

Kahneman’s research distinguishes between two systems of thinking: System 1 (fast, automatic, and intuitive thinking) and System 2 (slow, deliberate, and logical thinking). System 1 is efficient but prone to errors, while System 2 requires more cognitive effort and is more accurate. Kahneman demonstrated that people often rely on System 1 in decision-making, which can lead to biases and cognitive errors. His work has had a significant impact on the study of decision-making and judgment.

Tversky – Judgment under Uncertainty

Tversky’s work focused on how people make judgments and decisions under uncertainty, particularly through the use of heuristics (mental shortcuts). He identified several cognitive biases, such as the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic, which influence how people assess probabilities and make decisions. His research showed that people are often not rational in their decision-making, relying instead on heuristics that can lead to systematic errors. This has important implications for understanding cognitive biases in judgment and decision-making.