Untitled Flashcards Set

1.       There were many reasons for the persistence of slavery, but one factor was the outsized role played by Southern politicians. Through the 3/5 clause, the South was given disproportional representation from which to defend their interests. However, as the Antebellum period progressed, population growth in the North and Midwest drastically outpaced the South. So, even with the 3/5 clause still in place, Southern slave holders began to lose ground in the Congress simple due to demographic features.

2.       In 1845, the phrase “manifest destiny” was first uttered to describe the idea that the United States should expand its Christian Republic from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Public opinion slowly moved that way, and the United States came to be gripped by expansionist fever. The previous expansions of the United States (being granted Ohio, buying Louisiana and Florida, etc) were deemed happy accidents or deft diplomacy, not symptomatic of an Imperial design. In the 1840s thousands of Americans began to trickle West even though a small patch of Northern California was the only undisputed Pacific possession the United States owned. Oregon was joint occupied with the British, and the rest of California was a Spanish possession. In time the Mexican American War and Treaties with Britain would clarify possession of Western Lands, but Americans were settling in ever larger numbers in the West regardless of who owned the land. For example, over 70,000 Mormons settled in Utah while it was still Mexican Territory. Colorado began to be settled during this time by Americans squatting on Spanish and lands and in Texas some American settlers were invited in while many, many more came illegally. In other words, Americans were already treating the Continental U.S. as if they already owned it. Then gold was discovered in Mexican held California in 1848. The coincidence couldn’t have been more well timed as the territory around Sutter’s Mill became American territory soon after. The wave of gold seekers that came to California in 1849 has forever been enshrined as the “49ers.”

3.       The text has a small section on p. 494-495 which mentions Plains Indians and Mexican Territory as barriers to American expansion. It’s a tiny section with not much going on other than to say there were people in the way of American Expansion. However, Shi does not mention the Comanche at all who were a special case. There is also no mention of the Comanche in the index. Given their considerable power over the plains for a solid generation, settlement patterns were altered giving eventual advantage to the populus and prosperous United States.

4.       Before the rush of the “49ers,” the Oregon country had seen a stream of settlement beginning in 1841-1843. The journey along the “Oregon Trail” typically took five to six months and many died along the way to illnesses like cholera. However, by 1845 there were over 5,000 American settlers in Oregon.

5.       In California, the Spanish had subdued most natives through disease, conquest, and the mission system. The potential of California was known by the Spanish but never realized as the territory was so far from Mexico’s base of power. In 1824, when Mexico took over the territory from Spain, they attempted to populate California through the Ranchero system whereby prominent setters would be granted large tracts of land. These rancheros petitioned the government to end the mission system thereby severing the last positive tie between natives and Mexicans. Natives were increasingly forced into labor and died at alarming rates.

6.       John Sutter was a German-Swiss man who purchased Mexican land at the junction of the Sacramento and American Rivers. He has essentially abandoned his family and ran away from his debts. He encouraged American settlement on his lands. So many Americans came to California that the Mexican governor of California warned that California would not long hold as Mexican territory.

7.       The Donner Party happened- Ask kids to tell you the story…they probably know enough. Let them know it was far more tragic than they know!

8.       Texas- Yes, they took an entire class on the history of Texas, but I should give a brief overview: Texas was always considered part of Spain/Mexico though the United States did claim part of Texas at one point after the Louisiana Purchase but gave those claims up. The U.S. had also offered to buy Texas twice. The Spanish and Mexican governments had a difficult time populating Texas due to a number of factors including Comanche interference. However, the Mexicans decided to let a number of American Empresarios like Stephen F. Austin bring American settlers in so long as they converted to Catholicism and swore allegiance to Mexico. American settlement grew by legal and illegal means until there was friction between Americans and the Mexican Government. War broke out with Texan leaders like William Barret Travis and Jim Bowie defending the Alamo and James Fannin losing at Goliad. Mexican President Juan Lopez De Santa Anna prosecuted the Texas War with brutality and arrogance, the later of which caught up with him at the Battle of San Jacinto when former Jackson protégé Sam Houston routed the Mexican Army and captured Santa Anna. While half expected immediate annexation to the U.S., Texas proclaimed an Independent Republic instead and elected Houston as president. Jackson and Van Buren felt that adding Texas would lead to a large quarrel in Congress and deemed it would be better to wait.

9.       Senators like John C. Calhoun  favored annexation of Texas while legislators like John Qunicy Adams did not want to add another slave state, nor did they a want war with Mexico over the disputed territory. Texas became a political issue in the Election of 1844. Texas Presidents Sam Houston and Anson Jones attempted to push the U.S. to annexation by opening up negotiations with the British to increase economic ties. The fear of a British protectorate in the South made some legislators give a second thought to annexation, and helped to elect expansionist candidates.

10.   The Election of 1844- The Texas issue impacted the Democratic nomination convention. It was thought that the Democrats would re-nominate party leader and ex-president Martin Van Buren. However, Van Buren believed Texan annexation was a bad idea and it cost him delegates. On a 9^th ballot, James K. Polk, a so-called “Dark Horse” candidate won the Party nomination pledging an expansionist platform which favored Texas Annexation and a settlement of the Oregon border. Clay opposed Texas Annexation but the issue proved to be so popular with the electorate that even Clay flipped late in the election. However, by flipping on the Texas issue, it is thought that Clay alienated thousands of abolitionists who voted for a third Party (The Liberty Party) candidate. Polk won a narrow popular victory but a clear majority in the electoral college. Had Clay not flipped on Texas he likely would have won New York, and the Presidency.

11.   Polk’s victory made it clear that the people wanted Texas. However, before he could take office, President John Tyler formally annexed Texas. Many cite this as Tyler’s attempt to “steal Polk’s thunder” and it may have been. It should be noted though that Tyler worked for Texas annexation himself, but didn’t have the support he needed to pass a bill until Polk’s election showed the “will of the people.”

12.   Polk goals- Polk pledged to serve one term so he sought to act quickly with a wide-ranging agenda. He lowered tariffs with the Walker Tariff of 1846, re-instated the Independent Treasury Act (I have to admit to not understanding the ramifications of this…sounds like it took some of the old responsibilities from the BUS), and vetoed Whig infrastructure bills. In addition to Texas, Polk sought resolution on the Oregon question. In 1846, Secretary of State James Buchanan negotiated the Buchanan-Pakenham Treaty which settled the border of Oregon and British Columbia at the 49^th parallel. This was an interesting development because had War come in Oregon there is little doubt it would have been an easy American victory. The British had made it known they could not defend BC from the Americans yet the U.S. granted Britain fairly generous terms. Historians have wondered about this decision. Perhaps the stated reason is the truth: the United States did not want War with Britain and Mexico at the same time. Others suggest that since Oregon would not net any new slave territory it was de-prioritized.

13.   The beginning of the Mexican American War- Polk began his term by sending a few thousand troops under General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande, a river 150 inside of the agreed borders of Mexico. After some posturing, the Mexicans did in fact attack Taylor’s troops. Polk spun this attack as an example of Mexican aggression that needed to be countered with war. All the while, Polk was attempting to buy California and possibly New Mexico. The U.S. was relatively unprepared for war, but so were the Mexicans. The war was opposed by many Northern Whigs but was popular in the South. Opponents cast the War as an attempt to extend slavery.

14.   The theaters of the Mexican American War- The Mexican American War had four basic theaters of war: 1. Southern Texas, 2. Central Mexico, 3. New Mexico, 4. California. While there was some overlap, these theaters remained relatively separate until the climax of the conflict when American forces from New Mexico were able to join with American forces and California, and Zachary Taylor’s army threatened Northern Mexico while another force under Winfield Scott delivered the final blows.

15.   California and New Mexico- Before the war had even begun, Polk sent the dashing John C. Fremont to find paths for immigrants into California. His true purpose was to capture California as hostilities commenced. Capturing Sonoma in June of 1846, Fremont proclaimed the Republic of California. The “Bear Flag” Republic only lasted a month, but showed the ease with which Northern California could be subdued. Naval officer Robert F. Stockton later led an invasion of Southern California taking the then relatively unimportant Mexican city of Los Angeles. Around the same time, General Stephen Kearny led a daring march down the Santa Fe Trail to take the New Mexico territory. While a properly defended New Mexico would have been too much for Kearny’s force, Mexican weakness in New Mexico was soon apparent. Kearny was so successful that he was able to march to California to capture San Diego and shore up Los Angeles in concert with Stockton who had proclaimed himself and Fremont co-governors of California. These actions all took place before General Taylor fought his first major battle in Northern Mexico.

16.   Taylor battles Santa Anna- Taylor was a known Whig though he was not very political. His early victories made him the popular choice of the people for overall command. Polk reluctantly agreed but would look for opportunities to stifle the chances of Taylor becoming a Whig version of Jackson. After taking the great port city of Monterrey in 1846, Taylor found himself facing a boogeyman. Chased from power, General Juan Lopez De Santa Anna was sent by Polk to take over the Mexican Government and end the war. Santa Anna delivered on the first promise, but then took the field against Taylor. Though he had been humiliated in Texas, Santa Ann was still the finest commander in Mexico. Joining battle around Buena Vista in February of 1847, Taylor’s army met Santa Anna and fought a tactical draw. The Mexicans lost five times the number of men as the Americans giving credence to an American victory, but Santa Anna nearly broke Taylor in the battle and Taylor’s army would no longer actively advance for the majority of the War. One of the soldiers killed at Buena Vista was Henry Clay Jr, the son of the Great Compromiser. Clay Jr.’s death hardened the elder Clay’s resolve to oppose the war and the spread of slavery into Mexican territory.

17.   Winfield Scott’s Brilliant Campaign- Also in 1847, a fresh U.S. Army under General Winfield Scott landed at Veracruz and conducted a major amphibious operation to capture the city. From there, Scott did what was seemingly impossible from a military standpoint: he marched directly into the interior of Mexico, fought 4 full scale battles in which each was a major American victory despite being outnumbered. Scott subdued Mexico City at the culmination of a campaign which won him international recognition as possibly the world’s finest commander. Though his historical reputation would be marred by a failed bid for the Presidency and his somewhat uneven performance as a planning room General during the Civil War, in the 1840s, Scott was every bit a rival of Taylor’s for hero status in the minds of the people.

18.   The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo- The military side of the war went so well for the United States that some called for greater concessions from Mexico. Some called for the addition of Baja California and some Northern Mexican States while others called for an outright annexation of Mexico. However, the original American negotiator who sought to buy California and New Mexico remained in Mexico even though he had been dismissed. In an odd turn of fate, the negotiator, Nicholas Trist, disobeyed orders and hammered out a treaty anyway. The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo was mostly in line with pre-war aims: the purchase of California and New Mexico. Opponents of the war quickly forced Polk to honor this Treaty though Polk wanted to press for more. As it was, the Treaty was a humiliation for Mexico who was forced to cede half its territory for pennies on the dollar. Most Mexican nationals in the newly acquired territories chose to remain in the United States. However, with passage of the Land Act of 1851, Mexican Americans had to prove title to their lands which was documentation most Mexicans (and most Americans) did not possess. Most Mexican Americans were dispossessed as a result. Though not directly a result of the Mexican War, in 1853 the United States completed its acquisition of Mexican territory with the Gadsden Purchase. The United States acquired a small stretch of Arizona desert to aid with rail construction.

19.   The Legacy of the Mexican War- Though the military actions of the United States in the war represented a great triumph, the war carried a mixed legacy then, and continues to be debated today. On the one hand, the production needed for the war effectively ended the economic downturn that occurred in 1837, and many people were all too excited for new opportunities in the acquired territories. However, there was a growing sentiment even among those who fought the war (Ulysses S. Grant for instance) that the war was an unjust land grab. While figures like Taylor, Scott, and Fremont gained national acclaim, the war was largely uncelebrated and did not lead to anything like a second Era of Good Feelings. In the past, historians have largely glossed over the Mexican War emphasizing that Mexico shot first and the United States rolled to an inevitable triumph. The Mexican War is a hotbed for historical research today which focuses on multiple perspectives including the role of the Comanche and other native tribes, the British as they negotiated for Oregon concurrent with the conflict, and internal Mexican politics in addition to the Texan and American perspective. It is very possible that future generations of Americans will hear a different story than you just received.

20.   The Wilmot Proviso- With the development of the “Slavery as a Positive Good” mentality, and the Abolitionist Movement, the issue of slavery in the new territories became a much more disputed than any previous U.S. acquisition. Early in the war, Pennsylvania congressman David Wilmot made a proposal that slavery would be banned in any territory acquired from Mexico. The “Wilmot Proviso” passed the House but failed in the Senate. It never became law, but remained a point of debate and was introduced again and again. John C. Calhoun counted with a stunning argument that to prohibit slavery anywhere was to deprive citizens of their 5^th Amendment rights which protects property from being taken without due process. Prominent Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton and upcoming Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan each proposed compromises between Wilmot and Calhoun’s positions. Hart Benton favored a simple extension of the Missouri Compromise line through Mexican territories. While sensible, this approach was problematic because the great majority of new territory would be North of the line (for reference, the top of the Missouri Compromise line forms the border of the Texas Panhandle). Pro-slavery legislators were opposed. Cass, who would become the Democratic nominee for President in 1848, favored local control in each territory whereby “popular sovereignty” would decide the issue. While “let the people vote” is a very American response to the problem, the future would prove this to be a disastrous policy. The Whigs countered by passing over Henry Clay yet again in favor of the war hero Zachary Taylor. Taylor was a Southern slaveholder but quietly favored the Wilmot Proviso. Most voters did not know his opinions on the matter and assumed he would be friendly to slave interests.

21.   The Free Soil Coalition- A strong 3^rd Party participated in the election of 1848 as well. Though the Whigs were considered to be slightly harder on slavery than the Democrats, they still did not take a firm stance on an slavery issues. As a result, those who opposed the extension of slavery formed a party known as the Free-Soil Party. It attracted Northern Democrats and Anti-Slavery Whigs. Additionally, the abolitionist Liberty Party joined the Free-Soilers for the 1848 Election Cycle. The Free-Soil Party nominated former President Martin Van Buren whose political connections remained potent. Though the Free-Soil Party likely pulled more voters away from the Whigs, they harmed the Democrats far more. Apparently, Van Buren was able to convince enough of his former Democratic supporters to vote for him that the state went unexpectedly to the Whigs and Taylor. Though the same effect allowed Cass to capture Ohio against expectations, New York was a greater electoral prize. While the outcome would have likely been the same without the Free-Soil Party, it shows yet again the impact strong third-party movements can have. Additionally, the Free-Soil Party would one day be a major part of the coalition that would become the Republican Party.  

22.   If not already mentioned, briefly discuss the California Gold Rush and its fortunate timing, the growth of San Francisco. And that by 1855 California mines had produced almost half the world’s gold output and supplied the nation with 20 times the amount gold coinage in supply. The California Gold rush set off trends which led to the dispossession of lands from natives and former Mexican citizens. In California, settlers actively sought to exterminate the native population even though the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo guaranteed their citizenship. American settlers often used influences in legislatures and outright violence to dispossess Californios.

23.   California and New Mexico banned slavery before becoming states, but in the case of California . they allowed for the enslavement of natives and the harassment and impressment of Californios. President Taylor thought it best to admit both California and New Mexico as free states, but a new round of debate about the extension of slavery was touched off.

24.   The Compromise of 1850- Perhaps the highest drama in the history of the United States Congress occurred in 1850 surrounding California statehood. Most felt they had more time before the inevitable conflict over slavery, but California’s rapid population increase made it eligible for statehood sooner than expected. It was the last hurrah for the “Great Triumvirate” of Clay, Webster, and Calhoun, and would bring to the stage important figures like William Seward, Jefferson Davis, and Stephen A. Douglas. To answer all the questions exposed by California statehood, Clay initially offered a 7 Point Compromise with the following provisions: 1. California admitted as a free state, 2. Organize New Mexico and Utah Territories with no mention of slavery (a deliberate “kick the can down the road moment”), 3. Deny Texas’ claim to part of New Mexico, 4. Assume Texan national debt, 5. Ban of the slave trade in Washington D.C., 6. Strengthen fugitive slave legislation, 7. Deny congress the authority to deal with interstate slave trading. Debate raged over the Compromise as Calhoun made the trip seemingly from his deathbed to hear his remarks read. Webster made an impassioned 4 hour speech as well. After all the theatrics, virtually all of Clay’s proposals were passed though the 7 was reorganized into 5 provisions: 1. California enters as a free state, 2. Texas Boundary dispute and debt issue resolved, 3. Utah organized without a set policy on slavery, 4. Strong fugitive slave bill passed making the North participate in capturing and returning run-aways, 5. Ban of the slave trade in D.C.

25.   Reaction to the Fugitive Slave Act- the provision of the Compromise of 1850 which met resistance first was the Fugitive Slave Act. While probably not even a majority of Northerners were abolitionists at the time, the great majority of them had no interest in participating in slavery directly. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 essentially made all Americans hands-on participants in slavery. Northerners were forced to cooperate with slave catchers who would travel to the North in search of runaways and interference could land someone with a large fine or jail time. President Taylor had died during the negotiations over the Compromise, but surprisingly the new President, Millard Fillmore of New York, supported the Fugitive slave Act with full vigor even supporting treason charges against some who aided runaways. Though not a slaveholder himself, Fillmore proved to be a far greater friend to slavery than the Southerner, Taylor. Sometimes violence broke out as Northerners sought to protect their black community members. Among the organizers of resistance, a man named John Brown first turned to violence in Massachusetts. We are not done speaking about Brown.

26.   In the early 1850s, Northerners were getting more and more detailed glimpses of slave life as abolitionist publications became more and more common. Ultimately most impactful was the 1852 publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Its success helped to push more and more people to the abolitionist cause. President Lincoln would later credit Stowe with writing the book that started the war (that is a paraphrase).

27.   Millard Fillmore proved to be ineffective and unpopular, so the Whigs dropped him in the election of 1852, and instead nominated the Mexican War’s other great hero outside of Taylor, General Winfield Scott. Scott did not campaign well and seemed to act as if he were entitled to the Presidency. The Democrats nominated New Hampshire congressman Franklin Pierce as their candidate, and he came to personify a type of politician known then as a “doughface” in that he was a Northerner with Southern sympathies. However, upon winning Pierce seemed to be inclined to work with everyone. However, his Presidency got off to a bad start as his family was involved in a train accident and his only son was killed. Early in his Presidency, Pierce struggled to lead amid his grief.

28.   As Congress debated a trans-continental railroad in 1852-1853, Senator Stephen Douglass of Illinois proposed organization of a vast territory into Kansas and Nebraska, wherein each territory would decide the slavery issue based on popular sovereignty. This was problematic for two reasons: the territory was above the Missouri Compromise Line which had been mostly retained under the Compromise of 1850, and that large patch of land was the area the government had set aside for native settlement. Though initially intended to promote a Northern route for the transcontinental railroad, the Kansas Nebraska-Act came to be seen as a power grab by the over-reaching slave interests. However, the Whigs were powerless to stop it and they ceased to exist as a national party. The severed Northern wing of the Whig party would become a major piece of the coalition that would become the Republican Party.

29.   During the 1854 elections and the 1856 Presidential election, Northern Whigs had their choice of two parties to align with. The first was the aforementioned American Party, while the second was a growing new party known as the Republican Party. In 1854, the Republicans were made up of anti-slavery “conscience Whigs” (while Southern “cotton Whigs” mostly joined the Democrats), some Northern Democrats, and the Free-Soilers. An early convert to the Republicans was Illinois Whig  Abraham Lincoln.

30.   Bleeding Kansas- The Kansas Nebraska Act set up the possibility for violence. While Nebraska was definitely headed towards being a free state, Kansas was very much in doubt. The first Kansas elections were marred by pro-slavery thugs from Missouri who wrestled control of polling places and then expelled abolitionists from the legislature. The Governor of the territory denounced the results of the election, but the illegitimate government declared Kansas a slave holding territory. Abolitionists countered with an illegal government of their own centered at Topeka. A miniature Civil War soon broke out in Kansas as Pro-slavery forces sacked the free state town of Lawernce. Moving to Kansas to support the anti-slavery cause, John Brown countered the sack of Lawerence by hunting down pro-slavery men in Pottawatomie, Kansas and hacking them to death. Around the same time, abolitionist Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was attacked by South Carolina Congressman Preston Brooks. Sumner was nearly beaten to death by Brook’s cane. Southerners celebrated Brooks as a hero while many Northerners continued to further embrace the more radical Republican Party.

31.   The Election of 1856- As their first Presidential candidate, the Republicans nominated John C. Fremont of California fame. Their platform combined Whig economics with Free-Soiler views on the extension of slavery. The Democrats nominated the impeccably qualified James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. The American Party was at the height of its influence and nominated ex-President Millard Fillmore. Considering the Democrats were the only in-tact national party, Buchanan should have won in a landslide. His victory was comfortable, but he won only 19 of the then 31 states. Also, it was apparent to anyone paying attention that if the Republicans and Know-Nothings could combine, they would likely be able to dominate the political future. Fremont’s better than expected showing gave the anti-slavery cause new life. Buchanan was a friend to extension of slavery, and was a well connected politician. However, he lacked a forceful personality and suffered three disastrous events early in his Presidency: 1. Economic Downturn, 2. The Dred Scott Case, 3. New Kansas issues (won’t be discussed).

32.   The Panic of 1857- The American economy soared in production flying past European demand. Businesses began to fail and a run on some banks was initiated. Buchanan displayed Jeffersonian lassiez faire in taking no action and suffered a loss of popularity for it.

33.   Dred Scott v. Sandford- Details * p. 536. The Supreme court at the time was dominated by Southern slaveholders and the Chief Justice, Roger Taney, was the most pro-slavery justice of all time. The court ruled that Scott had no standing because he was not a human being, but property and therefore had no rights which a white man is bound to respect. The Dred Scott decision technically made slavery possible anywhere and was perhaps the most divisive ruling in the history of the United States Supreme Court.

34.   The Lincoln-Douglas Debates- Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas was a possible nominee for President and one of the most popular Democrats in the country. In 1858, he was challenged for his Senate seat by Republican Abraham Lincoln. In a series of debates, Lincoln and Douglas argued over slavery with Lincoln stopping short of abolition, but definitely striking an anti-slavery tone. Douglas won the election, but Lincoln became a national figure in the process.

35.   John Brown’s Raid- Brown and a few men hatched a plan to seize the federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia. From there they planned to distribute arms to slaves and start an insurrection in the West Virginia hills. However, once the Arsenal was taken (more by the negligence of defense than Brown’s planning) Brown’s group was almost immediately trapped inside. After a shootout, Colonel Robert E. Lee was ordered to capture Brown and his men. They did so. Brown was wounded and taken alive. Later at his trial Brown gave an impassioned condemnation of slavery while not disputing his conviction for murder. Brown was executed and has long been cast as an insane extremist. At the time, views on John Brown were mixed with many elevating him to hero status in the North.

36.   As the Presidential election of 1860 neared, Buchanan decided to not run again leaving the door open for Douglas. However, many Southerners had come to feel that Douglas was not sufficiently strong on slavery and 8 delegations walked out when it became apparent Douglas would take the nomination. A separate group of Southern Democrats nominated Vice President John C. Breckinridge, and an extreme supporter of slavery. After some initial ballots, the Republicans chose Lincoln. To complicate the election further, leftover elements of border state Whigs reorganized as the Constitutional Union Party nominating John Bell of Tennessee. The CUP sought to strike a compromise tone and had considerable support in the border south. With the divided field, it seemed anything was possible, but from the 20/20 viewpoint of history we can see that Lincoln had a tremendous advantage. His only real challenge was to win New York (which to win he would have to trust William Seward, a man who felt he deserved the nomination), and ironically his home state of Illinois (which could have just as easily gone to Douglas). Lincoln was not even on the ballot in many Southern states and he won the election of 1860 with the smallest plurality of popular vote (39%) than any President in U.S. history.

37.   Less than a month after Lincoln’s election and well before his inauguration, the South moved to action. South Carolina seceded from the Union in December of 1860. Lame duck President Buchanan’s response was weak but he did at least declare secession illegal and chose to continue manning most American forts in the South. In Charleston, South Carolina, Fort Sumter refused to surrender to the new government. Buchanan sent a re-supply ship to the island fortress, and it was fired on. The Civil War could have started there, but Buchanan demurred prompted further seizures all over the South. By February, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had seceded. The original seceding states met at Montgomery, Alabama and drafted a constitution modeled on the U.S. Constitution but made more overt mention of God, outlawed federal tariffs, and outlawed federal spending on internal improvements. However, despite these differences the major difference was the Confederacy’s written in protections for slavery. Jefferson Davis was elected President, and Alexander Stephens of Georgia was elected Vice President. Stephens made a speech that made it abundantly clear the motive of secession was slavery. His speech has come to be known as the “cornerstone speech” because he claimed slavery was the cornerstone of the new Confederacy.

38.   With Henry Clay gone, the oldest member of the Senate, the Senator from Kentucky John J. Crittenden offered a last ditch compromise which would extend the Missouri Compromise line across the continent but not interfere with slavery where it existed or impose slavery where it didn’t (as it would in California if the line were continued all the way across). In 1859 this compromise might have gained support, but with secession and the election of Lincoln the time for compromise had past. As a note on the tragedy of the Civil War, Crittenden would have sons fight in both armies in the Civil War.

39.   After his inauguration, Lincoln tried to hold the rest of the country together by promising not to invade the South beyond defending federal forts. He was trying to ease the fears of the Border states and states like North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia who had also not yet left the Union. Lincoln hoped that he could show strength without firing the first shot by resupplying Fort Sumter. When an audacious plan came together to accomplish that end, Lincoln ordered the go ahead. Rather than see Sumter resupplied, the Confederates under General Pierre Beauregard opened fire and forced the surrender of the fort. The Civil War had begun and for the moment, Lincoln had the entire North united behind him.

Ch. 14: The War of the Union

1.       As the Civil War began, few people were calling for peace. In fact, the pacifist Ralph Waldo Emerson even suggested that “sometimes gunpowder smells good.” However, Lincoln remained resolute that his mission was to restore the Union, not abolish slavery.

2.       Lincoln had promised not to use military action to suppress the South, but after the firing on Fort Sumter, the conflict became belligerent and demanded a response. For the states of the Upper South (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) Lincoln’s mobilization forced them to decide immediately on secession. All 4 seceded. The Border States had not seceded, but Lincoln moved decisively to be sure they didn’t. In Maryland, Lincoln had Confederate sympathizers arrested and held without charge until a vote was taken. If Maryland joined the Confederacy, Washington D.C. would have been enclosed within the CSA’s boundaries. Maryland voted to stay in the Union. While Lincoln’s actions were definitely unconstitutional, he was given tremendous powers as a wartime President. Additionally, many of Lincoln’s actions were considered appropriate especially because he was fighting a domestic insurrection. Kentucky and Missouri remained deeply divided by secession, and armies in the field would determine their fates more than a vote. Kentucky and Missouri end up with two governments but in both cases the Confederate governments were mostly on the run. Delaware never seceded, and evidence suggests it was not a close call.

3.       When the Civil War began the Union had considerable advantages in numbers of men, production capability, and technology. The Confederacy had lesser, but not insignificant advantages as well. They would be fighting on their own ground, fighting a defensive war, and on average had better military leadership.

4.       The Confederacy did have the easier job at the outset: they wished to force the United States to recognize their independence while the United States sought to put the entire Union back together. The Rebel Army massed near Manassas Junction in Northern Virginia, and Lincoln sent a large force to meet them. Many felt this would be a very controlled affair resulting in an easy Union victory. Many onlookers camped to watch the battle amid a picnic. Both armies were woefully undertrained an unprepared for war. The weight of the Union Army nearly broke the Confederates at a creek called Bull Run, but Stonewall Jackson and other Confederates held their positions an counterattacked driving the Union Army into a panicked retreat through the picnics all the way to Washington D.C. However, the disorganized Confederates were able to gain nothing but respect from their victory as marching on Washington proved to be impossible.

5.       Scott’s Anaconda- When the Battle of Bull Run didn’t end the war decisively as many were expecting, Lincoln met with several generals to formulate a strategy. Winfield Scott was still the most venerated military figure in the country and he proposed a plan to bring the South to its knees with minimal bloodshed. His plan came to be known as the “Anaconda Plan” as its execution would wrap the South like a snake. The Anaconda Plan had three basic parts: 1. Creation of a large Army to defend Washington D.C. and pressure the Confederate capitol of Richmond, 2. A grand and total blockade of Southern ports, and 3. Army invasions down major waterways like the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland Rivers. Scott was widely ridiculed and accused of cowardice due to the fact that his plan admitted it would be a long war and lacked truly aggressive action. However, by the end of the war most of Scott’s objectives had been met and his Anaconda Plan was at least semi-validated though Scott’s reputation still suffered.

6.       Southern strategy was more mixed as Confederate firebrands often demanded the impossible from their commanders. However, the wisest among the Confederacy understood that a defensive campaign was to their advantage. The South hoped that demand for cotton would bring the French and/or the British to a point where they would recognize Confederate Independence. As the war wore on though, the anti-slavery British gave the Confederacy a cold shoulder by buying more and more cotton from India and Egypt. Likewise, the French never fully considered Confederate recognition.

7.       Both sides raised huge armies, calling for volunteers at first but turning to conscription later on. Both sides fielded diverse armies, but the Union Army in particular was a vast mixture of different immigrant groups and languages. The Confederates “drafted” men first and allowed for planters to pay $500 for a substitution and allowed someone owning more than twenty slaves to stay home and manage their plantations. So, many of the people who started the war never had to fight in it. In the North, a conscription bill was passed a year later which allowed for medical waivers and hiring of substitutions. Both sides charged that the drafts made it clear that it was a rich man’s war being fought by the poor.

8.       Many people were drawn by patriotism on both sides to fight the Civil War. Many women disguised themselves as men to fight, and many families were divided by the conflict, see * on p. 560-561.

9.       Even before the Emancipation Proclamation, blacks made their impact on the War. Robert Smalls was an enslaved boat pilot who bravely delivered a Confederate gunboat the Planter through Charleston Harbor to the Union Navy. Smalls was later elected to Congress and was among one of the first blacks to do so.

10.   The mot brutal fighting occurred in the West where large armies never patrolled but nasty guerilla campaigns ensued. In the West, Hispanics and Native Americans were involved to a great degree. In Missouri, Confederate raiders like William Quantrill turned to terror tactics and made the war in the West take on a totally different tone than the War in the east. Many tribes in Oklahoma supported the Confederacy but no tribe saw more devastating than the Cherokee who had divided loyalties during the war.

11.   Forts Henry and Donelson- Early in the War, the Union suffered a defeat at Bull Run, but also endured a string of smaller humiliations. In 1862, the Union had little to show for their deployments. However, a force in Tennessee under the then little known Ulysses S. Grant captured two key fortifications along the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. In taking Henry and Donelson, Grant showed his dash and bravery for the first time, and his victories greatly reduced the chances of Kentucky falling to the Confederacy, and it made the conquest of East Tennessee possible. But, Henry and Donelson gave the Union much needed morale and made Grant the Union’s first war hero.

12.   Following Henry and Donelson, Grant moved South to pursue the Confederate Army in Mississippi. At the Tennessee/Mississippi border though, the Confederates counterattacked at Shiloh starting the first major battle of the war in the West. The scope of Shiloh would horrify both sides at the time, but would later come to be seen as a normal Civil War battle. Grant’s army was nearly annihilated by Albert Sidney Johnston’s force on the first day, but Johnston was killed and Grant was able to hang on through the night. The Confederates thought Grant was a fool for not retreating, but he was reinforced the next day and turned the tide on the Confederates. Shortly after Shiloh, American Admiral David Farragut made a daring attack on New Orleans via the Mississippi River. Most of the city’s defenses protected New Orleans from entry from the Gulf. Farragut’s dangerous attack took the city by surprise. The loss of New Orleans had a strong impact on the economy of the Confederacy.

13.   In the East after Bull Run, Lincoln placed a huge army under the only commander who had had any real success in the theater up to that point: 34 year old George McClellan. The Confederate Army of Northern Virginia remained under the initial command of the cautious Joseph Johnston. McClellan was an inspirational leader, a tireless worker, and an excellent organizer. He soon had the Army of the Potomac supplied and trained for an invasion of the South. However, as McClellan proved again and again that he would not attack unless conditions were perfect and conditions were never perfect. Additionally, McClellan tended to believe false intelligence and always thought he was outnumbered when in fact he always had a numerical advantage. Finally spurned by Lincoln, McClellan invaded Virginia and fought a running engagement with Johnston that came to be known at the Battle of the Seven Pines. Johnston was wounded and relinquished command to Robert E. Lee. Lee pushed McClellan back and forced his retreat.

14.   Lee began a winning streak in 1862 which would make him a legend. After Seven Pines, McClellan moved to unite with another large Union Army under General John Pope. Lee decided to strike Pope before McClellan could arrive. It was a risky move that could have easily resulted in Lee’s destruction, but McClellan moved slowly and seemed to not feel any urgency in aiding Pope. At the Battle of Second Bull Run, Lee defeated Pope and forced his retreat. The battle was fought on almost the same ground as the first Battle of Bull Run and was an even larger success for the Confederates.

15.   Developments leading to Emancipation- Lincoln did not move aggressively at all to curb slavery early in the War. It was assumed that Emancipating slaves would turn the Border States against the Union and into the arms of the Confederacy. However, as the war began in earnest enslaved people and the Union Army inevitably interacted. At first, it was Union policy to return any enslaved person to their owners, but very soon Union commanders realized the value of using “contraband” slaves for labor and some fighting. These refugee soldiers technically remained in a state of limbo until the Emancipation Proclamation. Debate ensued in Lincoln’s cabinet when Lincoln proposed an Emancipation Proclamation. Virtually the whole cabinet was against emancipation, but Lincoln remained resolute. In fact, Lincoln had already rescinded an Emancipation Proclamation declared in Missouri by John C. Fremont. Secretary of State William Seward convinced Lincoln to wait until the military situation was better so an Emancipation Proclamation would not seem like weakness. Lincoln agreed.

16.   Antietam and the Emancipation Proclamation- Hoping to influence the Congressional Elections of 1862, Lee decided to invade the North. At Antietam (Sharpsburg) Maryland, the Confederacy and the Union met in the single bloodiest day in the history of the United States military. Mistakes on both sides equated to over 23,000 deaths in a single day. Exhausted, Lee’s Army disengaged and retreated to Virginia. It was hardly a Union victory in the truest sense, but it gave Lincoln the cover he needed to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln cloaked Emancipation in military necessity claiming it would harm the Southern War effort while strengthening while bolstering Northern armies. However, it was not a full emancipation as it only applied to states in rebellion. Slavery remained in place in Kentucky, Missouri, Delaware, and Maryland. Some Northerners praised the EP while others claimed it was an over-reach. Northern Democrats were terrified as they still thought the war was being fought to protect the Union as it was before the Civil War. Word of mouth and secret Union units spread word of the EP throughout the South. Black troops were eventually allowed in the army on the spirit of the EP and the Confederacy countered by issuing a proclamation saying all captured black troops would be executed as would white officers leading them.

17.   After Antietam, Lee’s nose may have been bloodied, but his ability to defend Richmond was not diminished. Lincoln fired the timid McClellan and replaced him with the fiery Ambrose Burnside who immediately threw his army in a series of frontal attacks at the fortifications near Fredericksburg, Virginia. Burnside’s attack wasted 12,600 lives and forced the Army of the Potomac to retreat and accept a brief state of stalemate.

18.   New York Draft Riots- the Union attempted to conscript more and more men to replaced losses from early in the war. After the Emancipation Proclamation a group of whites burned the draft office down in New York, but their anger quickly turned to the black community and a mob precipitated violence against the black community for four days.

19.   The Milita Act of 1862 allowed for the enrollment of black troops and eventually 180,000 served in the Civil War. Very soon, black troops developed a reputation of being determined soldiers. Their performance did much to convince Northerners that African Americans were worth of equal rights.

20.   The War Behind the Lines

A.     Civil War Medicine- While the Civil War was a war in which medical advances were made in nursing and antiseptic techniques, amputations and infections were mostly the most common treatments often leading to horrible conditions.

B.      Women in the War- Clara Barton and Dorothea Dix came to be celebrated nurses with Barton later founding the American Branch of the Red Cross. As with most Wars, women did find new opportunities in male dominated fields like factory production. Also, many women disguised themselves as men to fight the war.

C.      Acts of Government during the War- With Southern Democrats out of the picutre, the Republicans were able to get all the things that Whigs and Federalists ever wanted. They raised tariffs, passed the Homestead Act making Western lands essentially free, passed the Morrill Land-Grant College Act in 1862 to promote the building of Universities, and the National Banking Act of 1863 which finally answered some of the currency issues that occurred after the death of the Bank of the United States.

D.     Union Finances- The Union focused on funding the war primarily through tariffs, taxes, printing paper money, and selling government bonds.

E.      Confederate Finances- In the South, taxes were volunatary to the states as they had been under the articles of confederation. The South was also cash poor and reliant on cotton sales. The Union blocakade was taking a toll on cotton sales. The Confederacy printed paper money as well but their bills were nearly worthless.

F.      Union Politics- Lincoln was basically able to run the country with little dissent on war matters for a time, but there were heavy political divisions as Peace Democrats (known later as “Copperheads”) opposed much of Lincoln’s legislation. However, many Democrats like Andrew Johnson and Edwin Stanton supported Lincoln. Republicans continued to build majorities, but the political battles were intense.

G.     Civil Liberties- Facing an unprecedented rebellion, Lincoln was given powers that no other Presdient had had before or has had since. Lincoln was allowed by an act of Congress to suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus at will. This essentially gave Lincoln the power to jail anyone and hold them indefiently without charge or trial. Most historians have judged these actions as necessary and Lincoln’s use of the power as tame, but there is no doubt the Habeas Corpus Act of 1863 was one of the most “unconsitutional” items ever passed by the the U.S. Congress.

H.     Confederate Politics and States’ Rights- The Confederacy was born on a platoform of state’s rights, but when the war got into full swing managing 11 governments proved to be difficult. By 1863, there were bread riots (in particluar one led by Mary Chesnut in Richmond) and armies in the field went without probvisions. To coutner this, the Confederate government abondonded state’s rights postions and became increasingly autocratic with frequent turnover in the Confederate cabinent and Congress.

21.   After Fredericksburg, Lincoln replaced Burnside with “Fighting Joe” Hooker. Burnside had the equivalent of a nervous breakdown, but would later come back to prominence commanding amphibious forces at the end of the war. Hooker was suprisingly patient and built up his strength for a crushing blow to the Confederacy. His plan would have worked perfect if Lee had obeyed the normal rules of war, but instead Lee was about to win perhaps his greatest vicotry. At Chancellorsville, Virginia Lee divided his force while outnumbered, which is rule number one of things not to do when facing a superior enemy. He sent Stonewall Jackson on an ambitious flanking mission. Had Jackson been discovered his entire column would have likely been captured or destroyed. Lee would have had to abodndon his position and possibly Richmond. However, Jackson found stunning success. Even still, Hooker might have one the day if he had pressed his attack, but being surprised by Jackson unnerved him and he ordered a retreat. The only blemish on Lee’s crushing victory was Stonewall Jackson was accidently killed by his own men in the aftermath of the battle.  

22.   Vicksburg- While Chancellorsville represented a low ebb for the Union Army in the East, Grant was making steady progress towards Vicksburg, Mississippi in the West. To capture Vicksburg would have given the Union near undisputed control of the entire Mississippi River making supply difficult and cutting off the a substantial part of the Confederacy from the East. Vicksburg was thought to be impregnable and Grant paid a terrible cost to take it. However, he eventually settled in to a seige and attempted to starve the defenders out. On the 4^th of July, 1863 Confederate commander John C. Pemberton surrendered to Grant.

23.   Gettysburg- On the heels of his vicotry at Chancellorsville Lee decided to abondon the notion of defensive war in order to invade the North a second time. Lee had several reasons to invade: 1. The dire situation around Vicksburg necessitated some sort of action from Lee. He determined that if he could strike at the North, Grant might have to abondon Vickburg and march to combat the threat, 2. If the Confederacy could win a major battle on Northern soil then Peace Democrats might have been able to force a settlement or had leverage to defeat Lincoln in the next Presidental election, 3. Lee knew he was at the end of the rope in terms of supplies. He needed to make a move, or he needed to disband his army and start a guerilla campaign. Fortunately for our coutnry, Lee despised the guerilla war option. Lee headed for Harrisburg, Pennsylvania in the hopes of making it his staging ground for the campagin, but he unexpectedly bumped into the Union Army. Lee’s chief scout, General JEB Stuart was missing, and the Union Army had just changed commanders again tapping General George Meade. Both armies were bumbling and somewhat blind. So, rather accidentally, the two armies engaged in the largest battle in American history. The three day battle is one of the most storied in history. The Confederates pushed the Union through the town on day one and forced them to take up defensive positions around strong hills. On day two, the Confederacy battered muliple points along the Union line and almost broke through, but the cost in blood was immense. On the final day, Lee gambled that with most of the fighting done on the flanks the Union center would be weak. It wasn’t. Lee sent his only fresh corps, that of General Pickett, on a frontal assualt. “Pickett’s Charge” ended in disaster with nearly all of Pickett’s men becoming causalites. Over 42,000 people became causualties and Lee’s Army was forever broken (though Lee would brillantly delay the inevitable for almost two more years). General Meade refused to pursue Lee with gusto and was replaced with Grant. Lee did escape back into Virginia, but he would not win another major battle for the duration of the war.

24.   Gettysburg was seen as historically signifcant even during its time. The battlefield was made a memorial and speeches were given at its dedication. It speaks to Lincoln’s popularity at the time that he was not even the keynote speaker. His 9 sentence address that day has become one of the most famous in American history as he predicted that “this nation, under God, shall have new birth of freedom-and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

25.   Total War- As the Presidental election loomed large, and General McClellan was nominated by the Democrats, General Grant took command of the entirety of the American armed forces. Previous victories had diminished the armies they faced, but the Union still had a challenging task of pressing their attacks to a point where the Confederacy would surrender. For the first time in the war, there was cooperation between three theaters of war. Grant coordinated a massive offensive in Virginia under his own command, from Tennessee under Sherman, and from Lousiana under Banks. His strategy was one of “Total War” whereby the goal was not only the destruction of the Confederate Army in the field, but the rebellion itself. The civilian population of the South was about to feel the full effect of the war. During the 1864 campaign, Grant engaged Lee over and over. In some of those engagements, the Confederacy soundly defeated the Union only to have Grant pivot and attack again. Lee was left no breathing room and his options dwindled as Grant tightened the noose. Sherman pushed slowly through Georgia while being opposed by Joseph Johnston. Johnston blunted Sherman’s movements but never attacked. Davis fired Johnston and replaced him with the fiery Texan John Bell Hood. Hood attacked and attacked, and was easily swatted away by Sherman’s veterans. Sherman pressed on to take Atlanta, which greatly aided Lincoln’s re-election efforts. After re-supplying in Atlanta, Sherman began his “march to the Sea,” in order to bring the war to South Carolina. Though not oppsoed by a signifcant army (until he reached North Carolina to face the reinstated Johnston), Sherman cut himself off from supplies and any delay could have resulted in the starvation of his army. Seeing an opporutnity, Hood decided to detach from Sherman and invade Tennessee. There he was met by one of the Union’s most underrated commanders, the “Rock of Chickamunga” George Thomas. In two engagments, Thomas reduced Hood’s army to the point where it was no longer an effective fighting force. In Louisiania, Genreal Nathaniel Banks struggled against and were defeated by Confederate forces under Richard Taylor (Zachary’s son) at Mansfield, but defeated and scattered the Confederate Army at Pleasant Hill a few days later. Pieces of Banks’ army continued on to Texas while the bulk of the Army moved North to complete the trap around Lee.

26.   Fort Pillow Massacre- During the war Black soldiers fought in many engagments. While they faced discrimination in their own ranks and faced hostitlity from the Confederates, by and large black troops were treated like any other solider on the battlefield itself. However, at Fort Pillow, General Nathan Bedford Forrest used a Confederate order to kill black prisioners as an excuse to massacre over 400 black troops and white officers at Fort Pillow. Forrest later denied the charge saying the troops never surrendered, but eye-witnesses on both sides prove that is not true. Forrest would go on to become one of the earliest leaders of the Ku Klux Klan.

27.   Lincoln’s Second Inagural- Though the war wasn’t over, as Lincoln prepared to govern his second term, he already was turning his mind towards the end fo the war. At least as the war was still going, Lincoln favored a plan of leiency towards the South. Many historians believe Lincoln would have hardened his stance after the war while others believe he truly intended “…malice towards none; with charity for all.” Places like Louisiana and Tennessee were completely back under Union control, so Lincoln had a vested interest in make surrender look attracive. However, given that Lincoln was assassinated shortly into his second term his leinent original ideas became policy.

28.   Appomattox- When it became apparent that he could no longer defende Richmond, Lee attempted a last daring march to strike at Grant. He did not get far. Heemed in by the fresh arriving army of Phillip Sheridan, and feeling pressure from all sides, Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia. Confederate officers were given generous terms and the two armies saluted each other. Most other Confederate forces surrendered the next month but some never surrendered and left the country. Lincoln would not see the end of the war as he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth after giving a speech indicating he would be in favor of letting black veterans have the vote.

29.   Transformations in the Civil War-

A.     Growth of the Federal Government- Through things like the Homestead Act, the governemnt took on new powers. By the end of the War, the U.S. Government was the country’s largest employer. Once power is given it is tough to take away and many of the changes brought about by the Civil War remained permanent.

B.      First “Modern” War- The Civil War was an industrial war waged on a large scale and did not spare civilians. So, many have called it the first modern war. Additonally, this was the first war many new technologies like rifled cannons, ironclad ships, railroad artillery, telegraphs, ballons, and barbed wire. Additionally the first rudimentary machine guns and repeating rifles saw major action in the Civil War.

C.      The 13^th Amendment- Though the Emanciapation Proclamation banned slavery in states of rebellion, it techincally did not end slavery. Missouri and Tennessee outlawed slavery on their own, but for slavery to be destroyed everywhere it was going to take a constitutional amendment. The 13^th Amendment was passed on December 18, 1865 despite some signifcant political battles.

Chapter 15: The Era of Reconstruction

1.       Northern attitudes towards Reconstruction varied from wanting a lenient reentry of the Southern States to wanting to punish all Confederates very harshly. And, as always, many people just wanted to look to their own interests and did not care a bit about the fate of the South.

2.       There is no doubt that after the War, the Southern economy was completely destroyed while the North prospered. The South was going to need to be rebuilt one way or another. However, not only did opinions differ, but people argued about who had the authority to make Reconstruction policy: Congress or the President. Lincoln passed a modest 10% plan whereby states could be readmitted to the Union after a small 10% of registered voters took an oath of allegiance. Those terms were perhaps overly generous but reflected Lincoln’s war time policies. The war would formally end soon and Lincoln would be dead, so the issue around Reconstruction remained controversial. A group of Republicans known as “Radical Republicans” also began to assert themselves more clearly calling for much more stringent hurdles for Southern reentry. The Wade-Davis Bill called for 50% of voters to take the oath of allegiance. The bill was vetoed by Lincoln but clearly showed the intent of the Radicals.

3.       The Freedmen’s Bureau- Thought the 13^th Amendment was passed many of the Republicans in Congress rightly wondered what freedom would mean if formerly enslaved people continued to be denied land ownership, jobs, and education. To help remedy the problem, Congress authorized the Freedmen’s Bureau to be led by Union General Oliver O. Howard. Though the Bureau was impossibly small and underfunded for its task, it was the first attempt by the Federal Government to aid individual citizens, a task usually left to the states. However, it is completely understandable that the Congress did not trust Southern governments to ensure the rights of newly freed people. Howard proved to be an able crusader. He focused on feeding, housing, and medical care to freed people while negotiating labor contracts with reluctant Southern businesses men. The greatest success of the Freedman’s Bureau was the forming of schools in the South for blacks. For a brief period, education was more readily available for Southern blacks than it was for free Northern blacks. However, with only 900 agents to serve 3.5 million newly freed people, the Bureau was limited. Southerners largely did what they were told by the Bureau, but violated black rights as much as they could when Union troops “turned their heads.” Historians agree that the biggest failure of the FB was the inability to redistribute land to newly freed people. There were several efforts to break up Confederate planter’s holdings in order to give land to freed peoples, but the Federal government didn’t seem to have the will for that fight. Had Confederate planters been forced to cede their lands to slaves, the history of the United States might have been much different.

4.       The Assassination of Lincoln- Already covered earlier, but review as needed.

5.       Andrew Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan- In 1864, Lincoln dropped his Vice President Hannibal Hamlin and ran instead with Andrew Johnson on a ticket called the “National Union” Party. It was the Republican Party, but with the war in hand, Lincoln was trying to strike a conciliatory tone. Johnson was one of the few Congressmen from a Confederate State that remained at his post in Washington D.C. He is most often described as moody, insecure, and a legendary holder of grudges. He was also a hard drinker. Johnson was in favor of the abolition of slavery and had a genuine hatred of the planter class, but he was an impediment to any further rights for Freedmen. Radical Republicans had begrudgingly supported Lincoln’s early Reconstruction Plan because he was…Abraham Lincoln. However, they showed little to no deference to Johnson. Johnson’s 1865 Restoration Plan was similar to Lincoln’s and was even harder on the planter class, but Radicals deemed it too light of a punishment for the Southern Rebellion and sought to thwart the new President’s plan. Much like John Tyler had, Johnson found himself between the two parties: he was an ex-Democrat and had scorned his party by not participating in the rebellion, but to Republicans he was not radical enough and was seen to by sympathetic to ex-Confederates. He pardoned over 7,000 Confederates who were ineligible for pardon under his plan. He did so in the hopes of securing some Democratic support for re-election. Johnson appointed Unionist governors to each ex-Confederate state and asked that they all ratify the 13^th Amendment. Only Mississippi did not comply.  

6.       It was still thought by many that when given freedom, many blacks would wish to immigrate to Africa. Instead, freed blacks began to immediately participate in the political process through Freedmen’s Conventions (also called Equal Rights Associations). These conventions in the deep south left little doubt that the great majority of African Americans saw the United States as their nation as well and sought to organize politically.

7.       Radical Republicans welcomed Johnson’s actions early on, but quickly turned on him as his plan proved so weak that when eligible, Southern states largely returned the leaders of the rebellion to Congress. Even Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was elected to the Senate. Voting rights for blacks had not yet been established, and Southern states did not give blacks the right to vote on their own. Violence against blacks in the South was surging to epic proportions. Radicals determined that there needed to be more stringent rules to allow Southern States back in the Union, and they began to work on a constitutional amendment that would guarantee black citizenship.

8.       Black Codes- In an attempt to place blacks in a state of limbo, free but not full citizens, Southern states passed a number of laws that came to be known as black codes. Read * from p. 622-632 for examples of black codes. Perhaps the most blatant practice aimed at returning blacks to a near state of slavery were various “convict leasing” systems whereby black prisoners would be loaned to plantation owners to fulfill their sentences. This practice of enslaving prisoners is technically still legal, but is not used in the same way. To strengthen these policies, many Southern states passed vagrancy laws where unemployed blacks could be imprisoned for vagrancy. Therefore, all that needed to be done was to deny blacks work, and then arrest them.

9.       The Radicals were able to gain the support of many moderates as Johnson’s plan failed. Congress passed the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1866 which outlawed many of the devious practices of the South. It would become the basis of the 14^th Amendment. Johnson vetoed the bill, but it was overturned. 6 Presidential vetoes had been overturned in American history before, but never on anything of high importance.

10.   The 14^th Amendment- Most of our Amendments do one thing. The 14^th is one of the most wide ranging Amendments as it covers a number of topics related to the Civil War. Amongst its provisions, it establishes birthright citizenship, repeals the 3/5ths clause, bars anyone who participates in insurrection from holding public office, and disallows repudiation of Confederate debt and disallows compensation for lost slaves. The 14^th was passed without a single Democratic vote and was made a condition of readmission for Southern states, ensuring its ratification. Essentially, the Amendment extends the 1^st and 5^th Amendments to all minorities except Natives who were still excluded. New President Andrew Johnson opposed the 14^th Amendment and went on a speaking tour to kill it. The bombastic Johnson created a stir with multiple gaffs, the most serious of which was suggesting that Radical Republican Thaddeus Stevens should be hanged. Just a year removed from the Civil War, the Democrats had a very real chance of regaining Congress, but Johnson’s “bull in a china shop” tactics led to large Radical Republican majorities, enough to render any Johnson veto meaningless.

11.   Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction- With their new found majorities and the general support of remaining moderate Republicans, Radicals scrapped Johnson’s Reconstruction plan and implemented their own more harsh version. All former Confederate governments except Tennesee (who had already ratified the 14^th) were dissolved and placed under the rule of 5 military districts. The Military Reconstruction Act sent around 10,000 troops (an inadequate number) to police Southern Reconstruction. The low number of troops made Reconstruction more combative in that Southerners often ignored the laws, but a larger number could have triggered a truly repressive military occupation. The new act also forces Southern states to include blacks in the political process. Additionally, two acts were passed as a direct check on Johnson. The Command of the Army Act gave Grant the power over all military orders (temporarily depriving Johnson of his Constitutional role of Commander in Chief) and the Tenure of Office Act which stipulated Johnson could not fire any federal officials without the approval of Congress. In 1867, Johson tested the Tenure of Office Act by firing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. Johnson appointed Grant in his placed thinking that would mollify Congress, but the House impeached Johnson instead making Andrew Johnson the first President to face impeachment. In the Senate, Johnson was acquitted by one vote. Much has been made of the one vote margin, but in truth several Republican Senators thought removal was a step to far and would have voted to acquit if their vote was needed. Though he remained President with the vote, Johnson was essentially politically dead.

12.   Not surprisingly, Southerners either ignored or found loopholes in the 14^th Amendments provision which guaranteed blacks the right to participate in politics. In many states blacks were still openly barred from voting, or they were dissuaded from voting through other provisions or intimidation. To combat the problem, Congress passed the 15^th Amendment which protected voting rights for minorities. 8 Confederate States had already been readmitted by 1868, but the remaining three: Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas would not be readmitted until 1870 with ratification of the 14^th AND 15^th Amendments being part of the agreement. While the 15th Amendment was celebrated by blacks, Women’s Rights advocates like Elizabeth Cady Stanton were crushed to see that the Amendment did not include women. Also, other minority groups continued to have their voting rights denied. Women would not get the vote until 1919, Native Americans in 1924 (not fully until 1947) and Asian Americans would have to wait until 1952.

13.   Black Society- Sharecropping became the most common vocation for newly freed peoples. In this arrangement, a landowner (often a former member of the planter class) would portion a piece of land to be farmed by a freedman. He would then lease the land with a percentage of his crop. While many blacks truly were able to take control of their economic lives through sharecropping, there were many abuses. Planters often underpaid, or otherwise defrauded freedmen. Mostly commonly, blacks worked in a near subsistence existence. Black Christianity flourished after the Civil War as blacks were able to found their own churches. Initially, the largest denomination for black Christians was the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME). It remains a substantial denomination today. By 1890, the Baptist Church contained the largest population of African Americans. An additional priority for the black community after the Civil War was the continued effort to build schools for African Americans. In some Southern states, education was initially integrated with whites, but most states chose to segregate their schools. Even segregated, these schools represented a huge step forward for the education of freedmen.

14.   The Union League- with the passage of the 15^th Amendment, African Americans organized to register voters. The Union League successfully registered around 90% of newly freed people. With Confederates barred from voting, and a new enfranchised black population, Southern governments elected a number of Republican governors and lawmakers. Even Texas elected Edmund J. Davis, a former Union Army General. In addition to white Republicans, a number of African American legislators were elected on the state and federal level. Among the most famous included the powerful Pinckney Pinchback who was elected Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana. Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce were elected to the Senate from Mississippi. All told, 14 African Americans were elected to the House of Representatives.

15.   Lack of a Land Policy- Historians often cite the lack of land redistribution in the South as the largest failure of Reconstruction. During the war, Generals like William Sherman had periodically confiscated Confederate lands and given parcels to African Americans. Even Jefferson Davis’ Plantation was broken up and redistributed to African Americans. However, two issues impeded land distribution. First, some of the few African Americans to end up in possession of their own lands sold their holdings soon after. These people were cash starved and in possession of a valuable asset for the first time in their lives. One can understand. However, the larger problem was Congress (and white Northerners in general) valued economic opportunities in the South. Also, despite slavery generally had more in common with the planter class than the freedman. As much as Congress did for freedman between 1866 and 1877, land distribution was never heavily considered. Land distribution likely would have caused economic upheaval, but would have improved the economic station of freedman and likely blunted the worst of Jim Crow. Land distribution was also opposed by a coalition of Northern free blacks, Southern blacks in cities, and Mulattoes who owned land. Though their numbers were small, they felt land distribution was an unearned handout.

16.   Carpetbaggers and Scalawags- Most Southerners still held Confederate sympathies and came to despise two groups of people who they termed Carpetbaggers and Scalawags. Carpetbaggers were so called because they often arrived with cheap suitcases known as carpet bags. A Carpetbagger was a Northerner who came to the South for profit. Some 30,000 migrated South after the war, but most were not wealthy elites but teachers and lawyers, etc. Scalawags on the other hand were Southerners who either sat out the war, or were willing to help Republicans after the war. Many were Southern Whigs or Unionist Democrats before the war. To fight against Carpetbaggers, Scalawags, the Union Army, and freedman, the Ku Klux Klan was formed in Tennessee in 1866. The original KKK was an organization bent on reestablishing the rule of the Democratic Party in the South.

17.   Radical Reconstruction has been seen by many 20^th century historians as a huge failure. However, there were many things accomplished by the Radical Republicans including new State Constitutions which enshrined freedom and new rights for blacks, a large number of new schools for the education of African Americans, increased railways in the South, and many other financial contributions. Widespread economic opportunity in the South led to contracts given to various companies. Corruption became commonplace all over the U.S. amongst businesses and politicians: Northern and Southern, black and white. Often black political corruption and carpetbagger exploitation are the only issues mentioned when discussing the corruption of this period, but one would only need to read a source from 1990 onwards to get a more complete picture of the causes for corruption.

18.   The Election of 1868- Grant had been largely apolitical and both the Republicans and Democrats approached him to be their candidate in 1866. Grant’s falling out with Andrew Johnson convinced him that he should run. Grant supported Congressional Reconstruction in his Republican Party platform, and he ran on the slogan of “Let us have peace.” To the bruised egos of the Southern honor culture, Grant was an acceptable choice because of his prowess and reputation for fair dealing. Amid KKK violence, Grant trounced the Democratic candidate Horatio Seymour (though the popular vote was close). The Klan killed hundreds of black voters and intimidated thousands of others, but over 500,000 blacks voted in 1868, almost exclusively for the Republicans. Grant owed much of his margin of victory to black voters. Grants first election occurred prior to the 15^th Amendment. To curtail black voting even after the passage of the 15^th Amendment,

19.   Indian Policy- In office, Grant oversaw a number of agreements (and broken agreements) with Natives. Grant was generally friendly to Native Americans in his outlook. Grant appointed General Ely Parker as the head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This was notable because Parker was a Seneca Chief himself. However, Grant believed Natives needed to give up nomadic ways entirely and integrate into American culture, which caused considerable friction. Grant did attempt to weed out corruption in Indian affairs, and Natives did generally know where they stood with Grant. The next two commanders of the Army though, Sherman and Sheridan, were harsh with natives. Sheridan famously said “The only good Indians I know are dead,” which is usually rendered slightly incorrectly as “The only good Indian is a dead Indian.” Grant also was willing to compromise away Native rights. When gold was found in the Dakota Territory, Grant informed Natives that he could do nothing to stop settlers from breaking previous Treaties and that they should make new terms.

20.   All sources seem to agree that Grant was a man of considerable personal honor, but his administration became one of the most corrupt in history due in part to Grant’s trusting nature. Grant also seemed to admire men of wealth and thought they possessed some unique abilities. Knowing they could never corrupt Grant, many businessmen turned to members of Grant’s family, and his Cabinet. In most cases, greed won. In a scheme dubbed “Black Friday,” financers Jay Gould and James Fisk tried to corner the gold market with the help of Grant’s brother in law. Before it was all said and done, even Grant’s personal secretary and his wife ended up being on the take.

21.   Reconstruction split the Republican Party between Liberal Republicans (aka Conscience Republicans, aka Half Breeds) and Stalwarts (aka Grant Republicans). Liberal Republicans were very pro-business and saw Radical Reconstruction as an impediment to business.

22.   The Election of 1872- The Liberal Republican faction grew frustrated with Grant and held a separate convention nominating Horace Greely, editor of the New York Tribune. Despite being a longtime supporter of abolition and the Radical Republican cause, Greely did advocate for an end to Reconstruction. Sensing an opportunity, the Democrats did not nominate a candidate and instead backed Greely. Evidently Grant’s popularity with the people had been underestimated because despite the split of his own party, Grant cruised to an easy victory over Greely.

23.   After the Civil War, debate ensued over the money supply. Paper money known as “Greenbacks” had been circulated during the war and ultimately caused inflation (read * p. 646). Some argued for a return to a focus on specie will others touted the advantages of “soft money.” Grant ultimately sided with the hard money advocates when the Public Credit Act was passed in 1869 which stipulated that government bonds must be paid in gold. The withdrawal of Greenbacks from circulation helped to trigger the Panic of 1873. To alleviate the panic, Congress and Grant engaged in a tug of war struggle around the decision to either issue more greenbacks or cut the supply of paper money. In the end, Grant stopped the printing of more money which actually made the Panic of 1873 worse.

24.   Racial violence was common during Grant’s administration. Grant cracked down hard on the KKK by issuing the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 which essentially outlawed the KKK. While the Act did destroy the original KKK, it’s focus on the KKK allowed other similar groups to continue to flourish. As a brutal example of violence against freedmen, in Colfax, Louisiana a white vigilante group shot up a black Republican courthouse and then executed over 80 men. Grant declared martial law, but only 3 of the 140 assailants were convicted of any crimes and the three were convicted of conspiracy, not murder.

25.   By 1873, many in the North had tired of Reconstruction and abuses by Southerners began to be more tolerated. Grant continued to try to improve the lives of freedmen. In 1875, a new Civil Rights bill was passed which stated public accommodations must have equal access for blacks and whites. Later this would be amended to “separate” but equal by the Jim Crow laws that came later. Overtime, Democratic leaders in the South were able to largely squeeze out black voters. The new Democratic governments that came to power were filled with legislators who considered themselves to be “redeemers,” or people who saved the South from Northern aggression.

26.   The Supreme Court also began to roll back some of the changes made during Radical Reconstruction. In the Slaughterhouse Cases and United States v. Cruikshank enforcement for some of the clauses of the 14^th Amendment were given to the states. States of the lower south severely rolled back rights granted by the 14th Amendment. For example, the masterminds of the Colfax massacre were found to have had no racial motivations. Groups like the KKK were allowed to continue their operation, and public accommodations could be kept separated by race so long as they were equal.

27.   The Election of 1876- Grant tested the idea of a third term given the divisions in his party. However, he ultimately decided to follow Washington’s example and retire. The leaders of the two Republican factions were James G. Blaine of Maine, and Roscoe Conkling from New York. Both men had proven to be at least nominally corrupt, and they both had made so many political enemies that they were both passed over for a Presidential nomination in 1876. Instead, the Republicans turned to Rutherford B. Hayes, a former Civil War major general, and a former Governor of Ohio. Hayes was considered to be a moderate that didn’t offend anyone. The Democrats chose New York Governor Samuel J. Tilden. During the election, Democrats pointed to corruption of Republicans as a reasons to vote Democrat, while Republicans “waved the bloody shirt” of accusing the Democrats of starting the Civil War. It appears that Tilden did win this election, but he was stopped one electoral vote short when Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina disputed their election results. Hayes needed all three states to win, Tilden needed only one. All three granted their electoral votes to Hayes, likely because they were all governed by Republicans at the time. Aware that a further legal fight might lead to a second Civil War, Tilden did not dispute Hayes’ victory, but the Democrats were able to get concessions. In what came to be known as the Compromise of 1877, Republicans agreed to remove federal troops from the South in exchange for an undisputed Hayes presidency. No longer willing to pay the price of Reconstruction, the North let the South go its own way. Democrats returned to power all over the South and would remain the party of the South until late in the 20^th century.

28.   Reconstruction was a difficult time for the U.S. Think of it as a cloudy, stormy sky, but there are some beams of light poking through. Many important steps towards equal rights were taken during Reconstruction amid an environment of social change and violence.