Developmental Psych Chapter 15
The Nature of Middle Adulthood
Changing Midlife
Middle age is starting later and lasting larger
As adults become older their age identity is younger than chronological age
Some individuals consider the upper boundary of midlife as the age at which they make the transition from work to retirement
Advances in health and more people living to older ages has fueled the emergence of thinking about middle age
rectangularization of age distribution
percentages of people at different ages in the life span are more similar
created by health advances that promote longevity, low fertility rates, and the aging of the baby-boom cohort
Defining Midlife Adulthood
middle adulthood: developmental period that begins at 40-45 and extends to 60-65
time of declining physical skills and expanding responsibility
people become more conscious of the young-old polarity and the shrinking amount of time left in life
individuals seek to transmit something meaningful to the next generation
people reach and maintain satisfaction in their careers
although biological functioning declines in middle adulthood, sociocultural supports (education, career, and relationships) may peak
neurobiological decline is slow and gradual and doesn’t interfere with effective functioning at work or in everyday life
Physical Development
Physical Changes
midlife physical changes are usually more gradual
rates of aging vary considerably from one individual to another
genetic makeup
lifestyle factors
combination of multiple adaptive behaviors (positive health behaviors, sense of control, social support, and emotional regulation) help to buffer declines in physical health and cognitive functioning in middle age
Visible Signs
first signs are apparent by forties or fifties
skin begins to wrinkle and sag because of a loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissues
age spots: small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin, especially in areas that are exposed to sunlight
hair becomes thinner and greyer due to a lower replacement rate and a decline in melanin production
fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle
individuals may strive to make themselves look younger
cosmetic surgery
dying hair
heavy dose of vitamins
baby boomers have shown a strong interest in plastic surgery and botox
Height and Weight
individuals lose height in middle age, and many gain weight
men from 30-50 lose an inch in height and may lose another from 50-70
height loss for women can be as much as 2 inches from 25-75 yrs
large variations
decrease in height is due to bone loss in the vertebrae
obesity increases from early to middle adulthood
women had a higher rate of obesity than men in middle age
linked to increased risk of earlier death, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
Strength, Joints, and Bones
maximum physical strength is often attained during the twenties
sarcopenia: age related loss of muscle mass and strength
occurs at a rate of 1 or 2 percent a year after 50
loss of strength occurs especially ijn the back and legs
smoking and diabetes were risk factors for accelerated loss of muscle mass in middle-aged women
obesity is also a risk factor
peak functioning of the body’s joints usually occurs in the twenties
cushions for the movement of bones (tendons and ligaments) become less efficient in middle adulthood
many individuals experience joint stiffness and more difficulty in movement
maximum bone density occurs by the mid-to-late thirties, after which there is a progressive loss of bone
women lose bone mass twice as fast as men do
by the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal more slowly
greater intake of fruits and vegetables was linked to increased bone density in middle-ages and older adults
Vision and Hearing
accommodation of the eye: the ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina
experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age
middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects
eye’s blood supply diminishes in the fifties or sixties
may decrease the visual field’s size
accounts for an increase in the eye’s blind spot
vision problems were linked to decreased life satisfaction, decreased self-esteem, increased depressive symptoms, and increased social isolation
hearing starts to decline by age 40
hearing loss occurs in up to 50% of people 50+
sensitivity to high pitches declines first
men lose their sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than women do
may be due to occupational differences
new possibilities for improving the vision and hearing of people as they age
better control of gare or background noise
laser surgery and implantation of intraocular lenses
recent advances in hearing ages
Cardiovascular System
cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age
level of cholesterol in the blood increases during the adult years and in midlife beings to accumulate on the artery walls, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease
the type of cholesterol in the blood influences its effect
when the level of LDL (low density lipoprotein) is too high, it sticks to the lining of blood vessels, which can cause arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
when the level of HDL (high density lipoprotein) is high and LDL is low, the risk of cardiovascular disease is lower
at menopause, a woman’s blood pressure rises sharply and remains above that of a man through life’s later years
uncontrolled hypertension can damage the brain’s structure and function as early as the late thirties
structural damage to the brain’s white matter (axons)
decreased volume of gray matter
hypertension in middle age was linked to risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood
exercise, weight control, and a diet rich in fruits, veggies, and whole grains can help to stave off many cardiovascular problems in middle age
deaths due to cardiovascular disease have been decreasing in the US since the 1970s
advances in medications to lower blood pressure and cholesterol in high-risk individuals
regular exercise and healthy eating habits
metabolic syndrome: characterized by hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance
sedentary behavior (especially moderate and high tv viewing time)Â and chronic stress exposure are linked to metabolic syndrome
often leads to the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease
weight loss and exercise are strongly recommended as part of the treatment of metabolic syndrome
Lungs
at age 55, the proteins in lung tissue become less elastic
combined with a gradual stiffening of the chest wall, decreases the lungs’ capacity to shuttle oxygen to the blood in their veins
smokers experience this at a greater level
exercise is linked to better lung functioning and a lower risk of developing lung cancer
increased cardiorespiratory fitness from early adulthood to middle adulthood was linked to less decline in lung health over time
lower bmi, less exercise, frequent drinking, and a meat-based diet were risk factors for lung cancer among never-smoking women
Sleep
the average American adult gets around seven hours of sleep a night
eight or more hours of sleep is necessary for optimal performance the next day
many adults have become sleep deprived
habitual sleep deprivation is linked to morbidity, especially among people with cardiovascular disease
sleep patterns change mainly between early and middle adulthood and then remain stable in healthy older adults
some aspects of sleep become more problematic in middle age
beginning in the forties, wakeful periods become more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep
the amount of time spent lying awake in bed at night begins to increase
can produce a feeling of being less rested in the morning
sleep-disordered breathing and restless leg syndrome are more prevalent
sleep problems are more common with people who use a higher number of prescription and nonprescription drugs, are obese, depressed, or have cardiovascular disease
Chronic Disorders
chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and a long duration
rate in early adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become common in late adulthood
account for 86% of total health care spending in the United States
most common: arthritis
frequency of chronic disorders vary by gender
men: fatal chronic conditions like coronary heart disease, cancer, and stroke
women: nonfatal chronic conditions like arthritis, varicose veins, and bursitis
50% of US adults have one chronic health condition
adults with arthritis as one of their multiple chronic conditions had more adverse outcomes (restricted social participation, serious psychological distress, work limitations)
Mortality Rates
infectious disease was the main cause of death until the middle of the twentieth century
chronic diseases are now the main causes of death for individuals in middle adulthood
men have higher mortality rates than women for all leading causes of death
Sexuality
climacteric: describes the midlife transition in which fertility declines
menopause: time in middle age when a woman’s menstrual periods cease
usually in late forties or early fifties (average age is 51)
late menopause was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer
menarche: girl’s first menstruation
timing of menarche has significantly decreased
perimenopause: transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all
takes up to 10 years
usually occurs during the forties but can occur in the thirties
symptoms: depressed feelings, headaches, moodiness, and heart palpitations
the more minutes per week that women exercised, the lower their perceived stress was
production of estrogen by the ovaries declines dramatically
decline produces uncomfortable symptoms: hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, rapid heartbeat
cross-cultural studies reveal variations in the menopause experience
few women have severe physical or psychological problems related to menopause
loss of fertility
until recently, hormone replacement therapy was prescribed as treatment for the unpleasant side effects of menopause
for short-term relief, the benefits outweigh the risks
lowers the risk of bone loss and bone fractures in post-menopausal women
associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease
hrt is associated with a higher risk of breast cancer
the longer hrt is taken, the greater the risk
hrt alternatives: regular exercise, mindfulness training, dietary supplements, herbal remedies, relaxation therapy, acupuncture, hypnosis, and nonsteroidal medications
hormonal changes in middle-aged men
most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there is usually a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity
testosterone production begins to decline about 1 percent a year during middle adulthood
sperm count usually declines slowly
male hypogonadism: condition where the body doesn’t produce enough testosterone
testosterone replacement therapy
can improve sexual functioning, muscle strength, and bone health
associated with longevity in men with a lower level of testosterone
improved older men’s sexual function as well as their mood
associated with a lower incidence of having a heart attack or a stroke
erectile dysfunction: difficulty attaining or maintaining penile erection
affects 50% of men 40-70 yrs old
affects 75% of men over 70 yrs
low testosterone levels can contribute to erectile dysfunction
main treatment: Viagra and similar drugs (Levitra, Cialis)
allows increased blood flow into the penis
other treatments: low-intensity shock-wave therapy
sexual attitudes and behavior
usually occurs less frequently in midlife than in early adulthood
middle-aged and older adults who had sex more frequently also had better overall cognitive functioning, especially working memory and executive function
past-year decline in sexual desire or frequency of sexual activities was associated with an increase in depressive symptoms and lower quality of life
living with a spouse or partner increases the chance for people to engage in sexual activity, especially for women over 40
premature ejaculation and erectile difficulties were the most common sexual problems of older men
lack of sexual nterest and lubrication difficulties were the most common in older women
a person’s health in middle age is a key factor in sexual activity
level of sexual activity was associated with their phycial and mental health
social and relationship factors are also important
Cognitive Development
Intelligence
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
John Horn: some abilities begin to decline in middle age while others increase
crystallized intelligence: an individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills
continues to increase in middle adulthood
fluid intelligence: one’s ability to reason abstractly
begins to decline in middle adulthood
declined in individuals 65+ but not in those 45-60
differences might be due to cohort effects related to educational differences rather than age
The Seattle Longitudinal Study
highest level of functioning for four of the six intellectual abilities occurred in middle adulthood
numeric facility and perceptual speed declined in middle age
perceptual speed showed the earliest decline - begins in early adulthood
middle age was a time of peak intelligence for some aspects of both crystallized and fluid intelligence
lower level of cognitive functioning in early and middle adulthood is likely due to age-related neurobiological decline
longitudinal studies hold the key to determining age-related changes in cognitive functioning
middle age is the time when many cognitive skills peak
Information Processing
Speed of Information Processing
perceptual speed begins declining in early adulthood and continues to decline in middle adulthood
common assessment: reaction-time task
decline is not dramatic
Memory
verbal memory has shown a decline in middle age, especially when assessed in cross-sectional studies
memory declines at some point during this point of adult development
memory decline is either nonexistent or minimal in the early part of middle age but does occur in the latter part of middle age or in late adulthood
changes in working memory
more time is needed to learn new information
in late middle age, working memory capacity becomes more limited
memory decline is more likely to occur when individuals don’t use effective memory strategies
having a higher level of education and engaging in frequent physical exercise were linked to less decline in middle-aged and older adults’ episodic memory
Expertise
because it takes so long to attain, expertise often shows up more in middle adulthood than in early adulthood
expertise involves having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain
Practical Problem Solving
everyday problem solving is an important aspect of cognition
ability to solve practical problems improved through the forties and fifties as individuals accumulated practical experience
everyday problem solving showed an increase in performance from early adulthood to middle adulthood, with performance showing a decrease at about 50
fluid intelligence predicted performance on everyday problem solving in young adults but with increasing age, crystallized intelligence became a better predictor
Careers, Work, and Leisure
Work in Midlife
work is central during middle adulthood
many middle-aged adults reach their peak in position and earnings
multiple financial burdens
age-related declines occur in some occupations, but for most jobs, no differences have been found in work performance
quality of work done by employees in middle age is liked to how much their work is appreciated and how well they get along with their immediate supervisors
work ability in middle age is linked to mortality and disability 28 yrs later
couples increasingly have both spouses in the workforce who are expecting to retire
economic downturns and recessions in the US have forced some middle-aged individuals into premature retirement because of job loss and fear of not being able to reenter the workforce
may also result in accumulating insufficient financial resources to cover an increasingly long retirement period
Career Challenges and Changes
globalization has replaced what was primarily a white male workforce with employees of different ethnic and national backgrounds
decline in defined-benefit pensions and increased uncertainty about the fate of heath insurance are decreasing the sense of personal control among middle-aged workers
many are delaying retirement
some midlife career changes are self-motivated, others are the consequence of losing one’s job
for many US workers 50 yrs and older, the decision to leave a job won’t be theirs
more than 50% of these workers are pushed out of longtime jobs before they choose to retire, suffering considerable financial damage
only 10% of these workers ever again earn as much as they did
cognitive factors earlier in development are linked to occupational attainment in middle age
task persistence at 13 yrs was related to occupational success in middle age
Leisure
leisure: pleasant times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing
top six regrets: one is not engaging in more leisure
midlife changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure
engaging in less leisure-time activity in middle age was linked to increased risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood
if an adult develops leisure activities that can be continued into retirement, the transition from work to retirement can be less stressful
type of leisure activity can be linked to different outcomes
engaging in higher complexity of work before retirement was associated with a smaller decline in cognitive performance in retirement
after individuals experienced daily stressful events, if they engaged in more leisure time than usual on those days, the leisure time served as a positive coping strategy in improving their moods
Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life
Religion, Spirituality, and Adult Lives
religion: organized set of beliefs that increases an individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other
religiousness: degree of affiliation with an organized religion, participation in its prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, and involvement in a community of believers
spirituality: experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society
92% of US adults said they believe in God and 50% reported that religion is very important to them
influence of religion and spirituality in people’s lives may change as they develop
women have consistently shown a stronger interest in religion and spirituality than men have
spirituality of women increased more than that of men in the second half of life
Religion, Spirituality, and Health
some cults and religious sects encourage behaviors that can be damaging to health
spirituality / religion is positively linked to health
various dimensions of religion and coping can help some individuals cope more effectively with challenges in their lives
Meaning in Life
three most distinct human qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility
spirituality: human being’s uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind
in middle adulthood, individuals begin to be faced with death more often
meaning-making coping is especially helpful in times of chronic stress and loss
having a sense of meaning in life can lead to clearer guidelines for living one’s life and enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and reach goals
higher level of meaning in life is linked to better physical health
The Nature of Middle Adulthood
Changing Midlife
Middle age is starting later and lasting larger
As adults become older their age identity is younger than chronological age
Some individuals consider the upper boundary of midlife as the age at which they make the transition from work to retirement
Advances in health and more people living to older ages has fueled the emergence of thinking about middle age
rectangularization of age distribution
percentages of people at different ages in the life span are more similar
created by health advances that promote longevity, low fertility rates, and the aging of the baby-boom cohort
Defining Midlife Adulthood
middle adulthood: developmental period that begins at 40-45 and extends to 60-65
time of declining physical skills and expanding responsibility
people become more conscious of the young-old polarity and the shrinking amount of time left in life
individuals seek to transmit something meaningful to the next generation
people reach and maintain satisfaction in their careers
although biological functioning declines in middle adulthood, sociocultural supports (education, career, and relationships) may peak
neurobiological decline is slow and gradual and doesn’t interfere with effective functioning at work or in everyday life
Physical Development
Physical Changes
midlife physical changes are usually more gradual
rates of aging vary considerably from one individual to another
genetic makeup
lifestyle factors
combination of multiple adaptive behaviors (positive health behaviors, sense of control, social support, and emotional regulation) help to buffer declines in physical health and cognitive functioning in middle age
Visible Signs
first signs are apparent by forties or fifties
skin begins to wrinkle and sag because of a loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissues
age spots: small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin, especially in areas that are exposed to sunlight
hair becomes thinner and greyer due to a lower replacement rate and a decline in melanin production
fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle
individuals may strive to make themselves look younger
cosmetic surgery
dying hair
heavy dose of vitamins
baby boomers have shown a strong interest in plastic surgery and botox
Height and Weight
individuals lose height in middle age, and many gain weight
men from 30-50 lose an inch in height and may lose another from 50-70
height loss for women can be as much as 2 inches from 25-75 yrs
large variations
decrease in height is due to bone loss in the vertebrae
obesity increases from early to middle adulthood
women had a higher rate of obesity than men in middle age
linked to increased risk of earlier death, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
Strength, Joints, and Bones
maximum physical strength is often attained during the twenties
sarcopenia: age related loss of muscle mass and strength
occurs at a rate of 1 or 2 percent a year after 50
loss of strength occurs especially ijn the back and legs
smoking and diabetes were risk factors for accelerated loss of muscle mass in middle-aged women
obesity is also a risk factor
peak functioning of the body’s joints usually occurs in the twenties
cushions for the movement of bones (tendons and ligaments) become less efficient in middle adulthood
many individuals experience joint stiffness and more difficulty in movement
maximum bone density occurs by the mid-to-late thirties, after which there is a progressive loss of bone
women lose bone mass twice as fast as men do
by the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal more slowly
greater intake of fruits and vegetables was linked to increased bone density in middle-ages and older adults
Vision and Hearing
accommodation of the eye: the ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina
experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age
middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects
eye’s blood supply diminishes in the fifties or sixties
may decrease the visual field’s size
accounts for an increase in the eye’s blind spot
vision problems were linked to decreased life satisfaction, decreased self-esteem, increased depressive symptoms, and increased social isolation
hearing starts to decline by age 40
hearing loss occurs in up to 50% of people 50+
sensitivity to high pitches declines first
men lose their sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than women do
may be due to occupational differences
new possibilities for improving the vision and hearing of people as they age
better control of gare or background noise
laser surgery and implantation of intraocular lenses
recent advances in hearing ages
Cardiovascular System
cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age
level of cholesterol in the blood increases during the adult years and in midlife beings to accumulate on the artery walls, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease
the type of cholesterol in the blood influences its effect
when the level of LDL (low density lipoprotein) is too high, it sticks to the lining of blood vessels, which can cause arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
when the level of HDL (high density lipoprotein) is high and LDL is low, the risk of cardiovascular disease is lower
at menopause, a woman’s blood pressure rises sharply and remains above that of a man through life’s later years
uncontrolled hypertension can damage the brain’s structure and function as early as the late thirties
structural damage to the brain’s white matter (axons)
decreased volume of gray matter
hypertension in middle age was linked to risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood
exercise, weight control, and a diet rich in fruits, veggies, and whole grains can help to stave off many cardiovascular problems in middle age
deaths due to cardiovascular disease have been decreasing in the US since the 1970s
advances in medications to lower blood pressure and cholesterol in high-risk individuals
regular exercise and healthy eating habits
metabolic syndrome: characterized by hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance
sedentary behavior (especially moderate and high tv viewing time)Â and chronic stress exposure are linked to metabolic syndrome
often leads to the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease
weight loss and exercise are strongly recommended as part of the treatment of metabolic syndrome
Lungs
at age 55, the proteins in lung tissue become less elastic
combined with a gradual stiffening of the chest wall, decreases the lungs’ capacity to shuttle oxygen to the blood in their veins
smokers experience this at a greater level
exercise is linked to better lung functioning and a lower risk of developing lung cancer
increased cardiorespiratory fitness from early adulthood to middle adulthood was linked to less decline in lung health over time
lower bmi, less exercise, frequent drinking, and a meat-based diet were risk factors for lung cancer among never-smoking women
Sleep
the average American adult gets around seven hours of sleep a night
eight or more hours of sleep is necessary for optimal performance the next day
many adults have become sleep deprived
habitual sleep deprivation is linked to morbidity, especially among people with cardiovascular disease
sleep patterns change mainly between early and middle adulthood and then remain stable in healthy older adults
some aspects of sleep become more problematic in middle age
beginning in the forties, wakeful periods become more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep
the amount of time spent lying awake in bed at night begins to increase
can produce a feeling of being less rested in the morning
sleep-disordered breathing and restless leg syndrome are more prevalent
sleep problems are more common with people who use a higher number of prescription and nonprescription drugs, are obese, depressed, or have cardiovascular disease
Chronic Disorders
chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and a long duration
rate in early adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become common in late adulthood
account for 86% of total health care spending in the United States
most common: arthritis
frequency of chronic disorders vary by gender
men: fatal chronic conditions like coronary heart disease, cancer, and stroke
women: nonfatal chronic conditions like arthritis, varicose veins, and bursitis
50% of US adults have one chronic health condition
adults with arthritis as one of their multiple chronic conditions had more adverse outcomes (restricted social participation, serious psychological distress, work limitations)
Mortality Rates
infectious disease was the main cause of death until the middle of the twentieth century
chronic diseases are now the main causes of death for individuals in middle adulthood
men have higher mortality rates than women for all leading causes of death
Sexuality
climacteric: describes the midlife transition in which fertility declines
menopause: time in middle age when a woman’s menstrual periods cease
usually in late forties or early fifties (average age is 51)
late menopause was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer
menarche: girl’s first menstruation
timing of menarche has significantly decreased
perimenopause: transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all
takes up to 10 years
usually occurs during the forties but can occur in the thirties
symptoms: depressed feelings, headaches, moodiness, and heart palpitations
the more minutes per week that women exercised, the lower their perceived stress was
production of estrogen by the ovaries declines dramatically
decline produces uncomfortable symptoms: hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, rapid heartbeat
cross-cultural studies reveal variations in the menopause experience
few women have severe physical or psychological problems related to menopause
loss of fertility
until recently, hormone replacement therapy was prescribed as treatment for the unpleasant side effects of menopause
for short-term relief, the benefits outweigh the risks
lowers the risk of bone loss and bone fractures in post-menopausal women
associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease
hrt is associated with a higher risk of breast cancer
the longer hrt is taken, the greater the risk
hrt alternatives: regular exercise, mindfulness training, dietary supplements, herbal remedies, relaxation therapy, acupuncture, hypnosis, and nonsteroidal medications
hormonal changes in middle-aged men
most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there is usually a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity
testosterone production begins to decline about 1 percent a year during middle adulthood
sperm count usually declines slowly
male hypogonadism: condition where the body doesn’t produce enough testosterone
testosterone replacement therapy
can improve sexual functioning, muscle strength, and bone health
associated with longevity in men with a lower level of testosterone
improved older men’s sexual function as well as their mood
associated with a lower incidence of having a heart attack or a stroke
erectile dysfunction: difficulty attaining or maintaining penile erection
affects 50% of men 40-70 yrs old
affects 75% of men over 70 yrs
low testosterone levels can contribute to erectile dysfunction
main treatment: Viagra and similar drugs (Levitra, Cialis)
allows increased blood flow into the penis
other treatments: low-intensity shock-wave therapy
sexual attitudes and behavior
usually occurs less frequently in midlife than in early adulthood
middle-aged and older adults who had sex more frequently also had better overall cognitive functioning, especially working memory and executive function
past-year decline in sexual desire or frequency of sexual activities was associated with an increase in depressive symptoms and lower quality of life
living with a spouse or partner increases the chance for people to engage in sexual activity, especially for women over 40
premature ejaculation and erectile difficulties were the most common sexual problems of older men
lack of sexual nterest and lubrication difficulties were the most common in older women
a person’s health in middle age is a key factor in sexual activity
level of sexual activity was associated with their phycial and mental health
social and relationship factors are also important
Cognitive Development
Intelligence
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
John Horn: some abilities begin to decline in middle age while others increase
crystallized intelligence: an individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills
continues to increase in middle adulthood
fluid intelligence: one’s ability to reason abstractly
begins to decline in middle adulthood
declined in individuals 65+ but not in those 45-60
differences might be due to cohort effects related to educational differences rather than age
The Seattle Longitudinal Study
highest level of functioning for four of the six intellectual abilities occurred in middle adulthood
numeric facility and perceptual speed declined in middle age
perceptual speed showed the earliest decline - begins in early adulthood
middle age was a time of peak intelligence for some aspects of both crystallized and fluid intelligence
lower level of cognitive functioning in early and middle adulthood is likely due to age-related neurobiological decline
longitudinal studies hold the key to determining age-related changes in cognitive functioning
middle age is the time when many cognitive skills peak
Information Processing
Speed of Information Processing
perceptual speed begins declining in early adulthood and continues to decline in middle adulthood
common assessment: reaction-time task
decline is not dramatic
Memory
verbal memory has shown a decline in middle age, especially when assessed in cross-sectional studies
memory declines at some point during this point of adult development
memory decline is either nonexistent or minimal in the early part of middle age but does occur in the latter part of middle age or in late adulthood
changes in working memory
more time is needed to learn new information
in late middle age, working memory capacity becomes more limited
memory decline is more likely to occur when individuals don’t use effective memory strategies
having a higher level of education and engaging in frequent physical exercise were linked to less decline in middle-aged and older adults’ episodic memory
Expertise
because it takes so long to attain, expertise often shows up more in middle adulthood than in early adulthood
expertise involves having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain
Practical Problem Solving
everyday problem solving is an important aspect of cognition
ability to solve practical problems improved through the forties and fifties as individuals accumulated practical experience
everyday problem solving showed an increase in performance from early adulthood to middle adulthood, with performance showing a decrease at about 50
fluid intelligence predicted performance on everyday problem solving in young adults but with increasing age, crystallized intelligence became a better predictor
Careers, Work, and Leisure
Work in Midlife
work is central during middle adulthood
many middle-aged adults reach their peak in position and earnings
multiple financial burdens
age-related declines occur in some occupations, but for most jobs, no differences have been found in work performance
quality of work done by employees in middle age is liked to how much their work is appreciated and how well they get along with their immediate supervisors
work ability in middle age is linked to mortality and disability 28 yrs later
couples increasingly have both spouses in the workforce who are expecting to retire
economic downturns and recessions in the US have forced some middle-aged individuals into premature retirement because of job loss and fear of not being able to reenter the workforce
may also result in accumulating insufficient financial resources to cover an increasingly long retirement period
Career Challenges and Changes
globalization has replaced what was primarily a white male workforce with employees of different ethnic and national backgrounds
decline in defined-benefit pensions and increased uncertainty about the fate of heath insurance are decreasing the sense of personal control among middle-aged workers
many are delaying retirement
some midlife career changes are self-motivated, others are the consequence of losing one’s job
for many US workers 50 yrs and older, the decision to leave a job won’t be theirs
more than 50% of these workers are pushed out of longtime jobs before they choose to retire, suffering considerable financial damage
only 10% of these workers ever again earn as much as they did
cognitive factors earlier in development are linked to occupational attainment in middle age
task persistence at 13 yrs was related to occupational success in middle age
Leisure
leisure: pleasant times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing
top six regrets: one is not engaging in more leisure
midlife changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure
engaging in less leisure-time activity in middle age was linked to increased risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood
if an adult develops leisure activities that can be continued into retirement, the transition from work to retirement can be less stressful
type of leisure activity can be linked to different outcomes
engaging in higher complexity of work before retirement was associated with a smaller decline in cognitive performance in retirement
after individuals experienced daily stressful events, if they engaged in more leisure time than usual on those days, the leisure time served as a positive coping strategy in improving their moods
Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life
Religion, Spirituality, and Adult Lives
religion: organized set of beliefs that increases an individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other
religiousness: degree of affiliation with an organized religion, participation in its prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, and involvement in a community of believers
spirituality: experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society
92% of US adults said they believe in God and 50% reported that religion is very important to them
influence of religion and spirituality in people’s lives may change as they develop
women have consistently shown a stronger interest in religion and spirituality than men have
spirituality of women increased more than that of men in the second half of life
Religion, Spirituality, and Health
some cults and religious sects encourage behaviors that can be damaging to health
spirituality / religion is positively linked to health
various dimensions of religion and coping can help some individuals cope more effectively with challenges in their lives
Meaning in Life
three most distinct human qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility
spirituality: human being’s uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind
in middle adulthood, individuals begin to be faced with death more often
meaning-making coping is especially helpful in times of chronic stress and loss
having a sense of meaning in life can lead to clearer guidelines for living one’s life and enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and reach goals
higher level of meaning in life is linked to better physical health