Developmental Psych Chapter 15

The Nature of Middle Adulthood

Changing Midlife

• Middle age is starting later and lasting larger
• As adults become older their age identity is younger than chronological age
• Some individuals consider the upper boundary of midlife as the age at which they make the transition from work to retirement
• Advances in health and more people living to older ages has fueled the emergence of thinking about middle age
• rectangularization of age distribution
  • percentages of people at different ages in the life span are more similar
  • created by health advances that promote longevity, low fertility rates, and the aging of the baby-boom cohort

Defining Midlife Adulthood

• middle adulthood: developmental period that begins at 40-45 and extends to 60-65
  • time of declining physical skills and expanding responsibility
  • people become more conscious of the young-old polarity and the shrinking amount of time left in life
  • individuals seek to transmit something meaningful to the next generation
  • people reach and maintain satisfaction in their careers
• although biological functioning declines in middle adulthood, sociocultural supports (education, career, and relationships) may peak
• neurobiological decline is slow and gradual and doesn’t interfere with effective functioning at work or in everyday life

Physical Development

Physical Changes

• midlife physical changes are usually more gradual
• rates of aging vary considerably from one individual to another
  • genetic makeup
  • lifestyle factors
• combination of multiple adaptive behaviors (positive health behaviors, sense of control, social support, and emotional regulation) help to buffer declines in physical health and cognitive functioning in middle age
• Visible Signs
  • first signs are apparent by forties or fifties
  • skin begins to wrinkle and sag because of a loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissues
  • age spots: small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin, especially in areas that are exposed to sunlight
  • hair becomes thinner and greyer due to a lower replacement rate and a decline in melanin production
  • fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle
  • individuals may strive to make themselves look younger
  • cosmetic surgery
  • dying hair
  • heavy dose of vitamins
  • baby boomers have shown a strong interest in plastic surgery and botox
• Height and Weight
  • individuals lose height in middle age, and many gain weight
  • men from 30-50 lose an inch in height and may lose another from 50-70
  • height loss for women can be as much as 2 inches from 25-75 yrs
  • large variations
  • decrease in height is due to bone loss in the vertebrae
  • obesity increases from early to middle adulthood
  • women had a higher rate of obesity than men in middle age
  • linked to increased risk of earlier death, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
• Strength, Joints, and Bones
  • maximum physical strength is often attained during the twenties
  • sarcopenia: age related loss of muscle mass and strength
  • occurs at a rate of 1 or 2 percent a year after 50
  • loss of strength occurs especially ijn the back and legs
  • smoking and diabetes were risk factors for accelerated loss of muscle mass in middle-aged women
  • obesity is also a risk factor
  • peak functioning of the body’s joints usually occurs in the twenties
  • cushions for the movement of bones (tendons and ligaments) become less efficient in middle adulthood
    • many individuals experience joint stiffness and more difficulty in movement
  • maximum bone density occurs by the mid-to-late thirties, after which there is a progressive loss of bone
    • women lose bone mass twice as fast as men do
    • by the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal more slowly
    • greater intake of fruits and vegetables was linked to increased bone density in middle-ages and older adults
• Vision and Hearing
  • accommodation of the eye: the ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina
  • experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age
  • middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects
  • eye’s blood supply diminishes in the fifties or sixties
  • may decrease the visual field’s size
  • accounts for an increase in the eye’s blind spot
  • vision problems were linked to decreased life satisfaction, decreased self-esteem, increased depressive symptoms, and increased social isolation
  • hearing starts to decline by age 40
  • hearing loss occurs in up to 50% of people 50+
  • sensitivity to high pitches declines first
  • men lose their sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than women do
    • may be due to occupational differences
  • new possibilities for improving the vision and hearing of people as they age
  • better control of gare or background noise
  • laser surgery and implantation of intraocular lenses
  • recent advances in hearing ages
• Cardiovascular System
  • cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age
  • level of cholesterol in the blood increases during the adult years and in midlife beings to accumulate on the artery walls, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease
  • the type of cholesterol in the blood influences its effect
    • when the level of LDL (low density lipoprotein) is too high, it sticks to the lining of blood vessels, which can cause arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
    • when the level of HDL (high density lipoprotein) is high and LDL is low, the risk of cardiovascular disease is lower
  • at menopause, a woman’s blood pressure rises sharply and remains above that of a man through life’s later years
  • uncontrolled hypertension can damage the brain’s structure and function as early as the late thirties
  • structural damage to the brain’s white matter (axons)
  • decreased volume of gray matter
  • hypertension in middle age was linked to risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood
  • exercise, weight control, and a diet rich in fruits, veggies, and whole grains can help to stave off many cardiovascular problems in middle age
  • deaths due to cardiovascular disease have been decreasing in the US since the 1970s
  • advances in medications to lower blood pressure and cholesterol in high-risk individuals
  • regular exercise and healthy eating habits
  • metabolic syndrome: characterized by hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance
  • sedentary behavior (especially moderate and high tv viewing time)  and chronic stress exposure are linked to metabolic syndrome
  • often leads to the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease
  • weight loss and exercise are strongly recommended as part of the treatment of metabolic syndrome
• Lungs
  • at age 55, the proteins in lung tissue become less elastic
  • combined with a gradual stiffening of the chest wall, decreases the lungs’ capacity to shuttle oxygen to the blood in their veins
  • smokers experience this at a greater level
  • exercise is linked to better lung functioning and a lower risk of developing lung cancer
  • increased cardiorespiratory fitness from early adulthood to middle adulthood was linked to less decline in lung health over time
  • lower bmi, less exercise, frequent drinking, and a meat-based diet were risk factors for lung cancer among never-smoking women
• Sleep
  • the average American adult gets around seven hours of sleep a night
  • eight or more hours of sleep is necessary for optimal performance the next day
  • many adults have become sleep deprived
  • habitual sleep deprivation is linked to morbidity, especially among people with cardiovascular disease
  • sleep patterns change mainly between early and middle adulthood and then remain stable in healthy older adults
  • some aspects of sleep become more problematic in middle age
  • beginning in the forties, wakeful periods become more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep
  • the amount of time spent lying awake in bed at night begins to increase
    • can produce a feeling of being less rested in the morning
  • sleep-disordered breathing and restless leg syndrome are more prevalent
  • sleep problems are more common with people who use a higher number of prescription and nonprescription drugs, are obese, depressed, or have cardiovascular disease

Chronic Disorders

• chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and a long duration
• rate in early adulthood, increase in middle adulthood, and become common in late adulthood
• account for 86% of total health care spending in the United States
• most common: arthritis
• frequency of chronic disorders vary by gender
  • men: fatal chronic conditions like coronary heart disease, cancer, and stroke
  • women: nonfatal chronic conditions like arthritis, varicose veins, and bursitis
• 50% of US adults have one chronic health condition
• adults with arthritis as one of their multiple chronic conditions had more adverse outcomes (restricted social participation, serious psychological distress, work limitations)

Mortality Rates

• infectious disease was the main cause of death until the middle of the twentieth century
• chronic diseases are now the main causes of death for individuals in middle adulthood
• men have higher mortality rates than women for all leading causes of death

Sexuality

• climacteric: describes the midlife transition in which fertility declines
• menopause: time in middle age when a woman’s menstrual periods cease
  • usually in late forties or early fifties (average age is 51)
  • late menopause was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer
  • menarche: girl’s first menstruation
  • timing of menarche has significantly decreased
  • perimenopause: transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all
  • takes up to 10 years
  • usually occurs during the forties but can occur in the thirties
  • symptoms: depressed feelings, headaches, moodiness, and heart palpitations
  • the more minutes per week that women exercised, the lower their perceived stress was
  • production of estrogen by the ovaries declines dramatically
  • decline produces uncomfortable symptoms: hot flashes, nausea, fatigue, rapid heartbeat
  • cross-cultural studies reveal variations in the menopause experience
  • few women have severe physical or psychological problems related to menopause
  • loss of fertility
  • until recently, hormone replacement therapy was prescribed as treatment for the unpleasant side effects of menopause
  • for short-term relief, the benefits outweigh the risks
    • lowers the risk of bone loss and bone fractures in post-menopausal women
    • associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease
  • hrt is associated with a higher risk of breast cancer
    • the longer hrt is taken, the greater the risk
  • hrt alternatives: regular exercise, mindfulness training, dietary supplements, herbal remedies, relaxation therapy, acupuncture, hypnosis, and nonsteroidal medications
• hormonal changes in middle-aged men
  • most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there is usually a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity
  • testosterone production begins to decline about 1 percent a year during middle adulthood
  • sperm count usually declines slowly
  • male hypogonadism: condition where the body doesn’t produce enough testosterone
  • testosterone replacement therapy
  • can improve sexual functioning, muscle strength, and bone health
  • associated with longevity in men with a lower level of testosterone
  • improved older men’s sexual function as well as their mood
  • associated with a lower incidence of having a heart attack or a stroke
  • erectile dysfunction: difficulty attaining or maintaining penile erection
  • affects 50% of men 40-70 yrs old
  • affects 75% of men over 70 yrs
  • low testosterone levels can contribute to erectile dysfunction
  • main treatment: Viagra and similar drugs (Levitra, Cialis)
    • allows increased blood flow into the penis
  • other treatments: low-intensity shock-wave therapy
• sexual attitudes and behavior
  • usually occurs less frequently in midlife than in early adulthood
  • middle-aged and older adults who had sex more frequently also had better overall cognitive functioning, especially working memory and executive function
  • past-year decline in sexual desire or frequency of sexual activities was associated with an increase in depressive symptoms and lower quality of life
  • living with a spouse or partner increases the chance for people to engage in sexual activity, especially for women over 40
  • premature ejaculation and erectile difficulties were the most common sexual problems of older men
  • lack of sexual nterest and lubrication difficulties were the most common in older women
  • a person’s health in middle age is a key factor in sexual activity
  • level of sexual activity was associated with their phycial and mental health
  • social and relationship factors are also important

Cognitive Development

Intelligence

• Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
  • John Horn: some abilities begin to decline in middle age while others increase
  • crystallized intelligence: an individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills
  • continues to increase in middle adulthood
  • fluid intelligence: one’s ability to reason abstractly
  • begins to decline in middle adulthood
  • declined in individuals 65+ but not in those 45-60
  • differences might be due to cohort effects related to educational differences rather than age
• The Seattle Longitudinal Study
  • highest level of functioning for four of the six intellectual abilities occurred in middle adulthood
  • numeric facility and perceptual speed declined in middle age
  • perceptual speed showed the earliest decline - begins in early adulthood
  • middle age was a time of peak intelligence for some aspects of both crystallized and fluid intelligence
  • lower level of cognitive functioning in early and middle adulthood is likely due to age-related neurobiological decline
  • longitudinal studies hold the key to determining age-related changes in cognitive functioning
  • middle age is the time when many cognitive skills peak

Information Processing

• Speed of Information Processing
  • perceptual speed begins declining in early adulthood and continues to decline in middle adulthood
  • common assessment: reaction-time task
  • decline is not dramatic
• Memory
  • verbal memory has shown a decline in middle age, especially when assessed in cross-sectional studies
  • memory declines at some point during this point of adult development
  • memory decline is either nonexistent or minimal in the early part of middle age but does occur in the latter part of middle age or in late adulthood
  • changes in working memory
  • more time is needed to learn new information
  • in late middle age, working memory capacity becomes more limited
  • memory decline is more likely to occur when individuals don’t use effective memory strategies
  • having a higher level of education and engaging in frequent physical exercise were linked to less decline in middle-aged and older adults’ episodic memory
• Expertise
  • because it takes so long to attain, expertise often shows up more in middle adulthood than in early adulthood
  • expertise involves having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain
• Practical Problem Solving
  • everyday problem solving is an important aspect of cognition
  • ability to solve practical problems improved through the forties and fifties as individuals accumulated practical experience
  • everyday problem solving showed an increase in performance from early adulthood to middle adulthood, with performance showing a decrease at about 50
  • fluid intelligence predicted performance on everyday problem solving in young adults but with increasing age, crystallized intelligence became a better predictor

Careers, Work, and Leisure

Work in Midlife

• work is central during middle adulthood
• many middle-aged adults reach their peak in position and earnings
• multiple financial burdens
• age-related declines occur in some occupations, but for most jobs, no differences have been found in work performance
• quality of work done by employees in middle age is liked to how much their work is appreciated and how well they get along with their immediate supervisors
• work ability in middle age is linked to mortality and disability 28 yrs later
• couples increasingly have both spouses in the workforce who are expecting to retire
• economic downturns and recessions in the US have forced some middle-aged individuals into premature retirement because of job loss and fear of not being able to reenter the workforce
  • may also result in accumulating insufficient financial resources to cover an increasingly long retirement period

Career Challenges and Changes

• globalization has replaced what was primarily a white male workforce with employees of different ethnic and national backgrounds
• decline in defined-benefit pensions and increased uncertainty about the fate of heath insurance are decreasing the sense of personal control among middle-aged workers
  • many are delaying retirement
• some midlife career changes are self-motivated, others are the consequence of losing one’s job
  • for many US workers 50 yrs and older, the decision to leave a job won’t be theirs
  • more than 50% of these workers are pushed out of longtime jobs before they choose to retire, suffering considerable financial damage
  • only 10% of these workers ever again earn as much as they did
• cognitive factors earlier in development are linked to occupational attainment in middle age
  • task persistence at 13 yrs was related to occupational success in middle age

Leisure

• leisure: pleasant times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing
• top six regrets: one is not engaging in more leisure
• midlife changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure
• engaging in less leisure-time activity in middle age was linked to increased risk of cognitive impairment in late adulthood
• if an adult develops leisure activities that can be continued into retirement, the transition from work to retirement can be less stressful
• type of leisure activity can be linked to different outcomes
  • engaging in higher complexity of work before retirement was associated with a smaller decline in cognitive performance in retirement
• after individuals experienced daily stressful events, if they engaged in more leisure time than usual on those days, the leisure time served as a positive coping strategy in improving their moods

Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life

Religion, Spirituality, and Adult Lives

• religion: organized set of beliefs that increases an individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other
• religiousness: degree of affiliation with an organized religion, participation in its prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, and involvement in a community of believers
• spirituality: experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society
• 92% of US adults said they believe in God and 50% reported that religion is very important to them
• influence of religion and spirituality in people’s lives may change as they develop
• women have consistently shown a stronger interest in religion and spirituality than men have
• spirituality of women increased more than that of men in the second half of life

Religion, Spirituality, and Health

• some cults and religious sects encourage behaviors that can be damaging to health
• spirituality / religion is positively linked to health
• various dimensions of religion and coping can help some individuals cope more effectively with challenges in their lives

Meaning in Life

• three most distinct human qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility
  • spirituality: human being’s uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind
• in middle adulthood, individuals begin to be faced with death more often
• meaning-making coping is especially helpful in times of chronic stress and loss
• having a sense of meaning in life can lead to clearer guidelines for living one’s life and enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and reach goals
• higher level of meaning in life is linked to better physical health

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