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Studied by 21 peopleAnalyzing Representations of Individuals with Disabilities in Picture Books
Analyzing Representations of Individuals with Disabilities in Picture Books
Using a critical literacy stance encourages students to challenge disability stereotypes in texts, media, and interactions.
Teachers can use children’s literature to initiate conversations about disability representation.
Some literature offers rich representations, while others contain implicit stereotypes.
Example 1: Last Stop on Market Street by de la Peña (2014)
CJ and his Nana ride the bus to volunteer at a soup kitchen.
CJ questions his grandmother about their community.
A man with a spotted dog boards, and CJ gives up his seat.
CJ asks why the man can’t see, and Nana explains that some people "watch the world with their ears."
The man adds that they use their noses too, complimenting Nana’s perfume.
Nana laughs and squeezes the man’s hand.
Example 2: John’s Whistle by Ferreirós and Wimmer (2013)
John uses whistles to communicate instead of speech.
John didn’t speak at the age when other children begin to speak, and he could only whistle to express himself.
John miraculously shouts his crush’s name in the woods and is "cured."
The excerpts convey different messages about disability.
Last Stop on Market Street encourages questioning deficit views of disabilities.
John’s Whistle conveys that disability (muteness) is a problem needing a cure.
This article offers tools for planning close reading lessons to critically examine disability representation in picture books.
The authors draw on experiences as former elementary educators and current teacher educators.
They acknowledge the difficulty of this work, especially with varied reading abilities in classrooms.
A 2-day structure is suggested: an interactive read-aloud followed by a close reading lesson.
The article reviews research on close reading and its application to critical literacy.
It explores how children discuss disability during read-alouds.
It provides guidance for text selection and analysis.
It presents three prompting guides (Tables 1–3) and a sample lesson plan based on My Three Best Friends and Me, Zulay by Cari Best.
Close Reading
Close reading became popular in elementary teaching in the early 2010s due to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS).
CCSS emphasized students acquiring "the habits of reading independently and closely" (CCSS Initiative, 2020).
During close reading, the teacher introduces a short, challenging text and guides students through multiple readings.
The aim is to deeply examine specific aspects of the text across multiple instructional lessons (Brown & Kappas, 2012; Serravallo, 2018).
Targeted questioning promotes critical thinking skills like synthesis, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation.
Close reading serves as a scaffold for difficult texts, encouraging rereading as a transferable process.
Waters (2014) found that close reading helped students with diverse literacy profiles deepen their comprehension and understanding of implicit messages (p. 20).
Initial CCSS guidance focused on "what lies within the four corners of the text" (Coleman & Pimentel, 2012).
The intention was to encourage text-dependent questions to model persisting through difficult reading.
However, this approach de-emphasizes the reader’s perspective, background, and biases (Ferguson, 2014).
Close Reading and Critical Literacy
Over the past decade, practitioners and researchers have reshaped close reading to acknowledge readers' prior experiences and sociocultural contexts (Fisher & Frey, 2012; Serafini, 2013/2014).
Lehman and Roberts (2013) advocate for a model of close reading that encourages the use of lenses of analysis.
Miller (2013) explains this process:
Using lenses to focus readers’ examination on one element of text such as characterization, word choice, or text structure, students collect information about what they read.
Looking for patterns in a text, students evaluate the choices writers make and develop a deeper understanding of the text and its greater message.
This definition acknowledges the reader’s positionality and the writer’s perspective.
It opens up space to examine messages the author intentionally or unintentionally conveys, which is the practice of critical literacy.
Critical literacy is a stance foregrounding justice and designed to challenge unequal power dynamics (Freire, 2018).
Principles of critical literacy include understanding that anything constructed through language is informed by perspectives and ideological beliefs.
Any text can be deconstructed to better understand power and ideology (Jones, 2012).
Critical literacy scholars argue that reading a text disconnected from one’s personal and broader social context is impossible and irresponsible (Ferguson, 2014).
Close reading should include “both what lies within and outside of the text” (Ferguson, 2014).
Learning to read involves understanding an author’s interests and perspectives.
The language used in texts often serves the author’s own interests and perspectives and omits others’ points of view.
Drawing on prior knowledge and experiences supports readers in understanding a text as imbued with power, positioning, and a variety of perspectives, rather than neutral.
Critical literacy should not be confused with the ability to read critically, which involves higher-order thinking skills (DiYanni, 2017).
Critical thinking skills are fundamental to both close reading and critical literacy.
Critical literacy uses those skills to question the power and ideology of the text and how the reader is influenced by it.
Close reading provides a method to support students in engaging in critical literacy practices.
Pause and Ponder:
How are people with disabilities typically represented in children’s literature?
What representations of disabilities are currently in your classroom library?
How have students engaged with these texts or discussed these identities?
How might we support students in critically questioning the messages that texts send about disabilities?
Disability Representations in Children’s Literature
Research has explored how children discuss social issues during read-alouds, including research on race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation (e.g., Jones, 2012; Kessler, Mills, & Reilly, 2020; Ryan, Patraw, & Bednar, 2013).
However, there is little empirical scholarship that examines the teaching of children’s literature that represents individuals with disabilities.
Scholars and educators have outlined the landscape for what disability representation looks like in children’s literature (Ayala, 1999; Pennell et al., 2018), finding that individuals with disabilities are often absent from children’s literature, or portrayed in negative and stereotypical ways.
Scholars have also given suggestions for how to select texts that promote inclusive thinking (Andrews, 1998, Nasatir, & Horn, 2003) and provided methods for engaging students in discussions of disability representations in texts (Ostrosky, Mouzourou, Dorsey, Favazza, & Leboeuf, 2015; Prater, Dyches, & Johnstun, 2006).
These suggested practices include preparing questions about the content of the story, explicitly teaching about a disability and related vocabulary, and facilitating discussions about the similarities between main characters and students.
Studies have shown that increased exposure to characters with disabilities can lead to more positive interactions between students with and without disabilities and limit some of the unintended consequences of inclusion experienced by students with disabilities, such as poor self-confidence and emotional insecurity (Adomat, 2014; Cameron & Rutland, 2006).
In contrast, other scholars have found that representing people with disabilities in classroom texts was not enough to shift student mindsets.
For example, students often conformed to school and societal expectations of anti-bullying when discussing children’s books featuring characters with disabilities, often providing educators with shallow, formulaic responses to read-alouds (Wilkins, Howe, Seiloff, Rowan, & Lilly, 2016).
To move beyond surface-level conversations, teachers must recognize when students are giving socially acceptable responses, and then make space for students to express potentially problematic perspectives or misconceptions about individuals with disabilities.
While teachers may want to discourage negative attitudes about individuals with disabilities in the classroom, Wilkins et al. (2016) argue that a true change in attitude will not be possible without fostering an open dialogue through questioning that encourages students to explain their reasoning.
Educators can use close reading with a critical literacy stance to pose questions that elicit the unpacking and challenging of beliefs about individuals with disabilities conveyed by literature and society.
Moreover, disability scholars have utilized close reading as a methodological approach to analyzing disability narratives (Ashby & Causton-Theoharris, 2009), adult literature and media (Fraser, 2013), and disability representation in children’s literature (Ghaida, 2016).
The practice of close reading for disability representation that has been effective with adults can inform teaching practices that explore disability representation in read-alouds with elementary students.
Close reading with a critical literacy stance gives readers the tools to uncover the messages about disability explicitly or implicitly sent through picture books.
Preparing for a Lesson
To prepare for these lessons, teachers should ensure that students are already familiar with the transferable process of close reading a text and lenses for close reading (e.g., plot, character, and word choice).
It is also important to build students’ background knowledge about disability.
Teachers will want to determine what students know about disability, who identifies or has family members who identify as having a disability, and what assumptions students may have about individuals with disabilities.
For example, students may believe all disabilities are physical, or that having a disability is a bad thing because it requires working with a special teacher and leaving the classroom.
On the other hand, some students may proudly claim their own disabilities or disabilities of their family members and view disability as a part of their everyday lives.
These conversations might be a part of morning meetings or social emotional curriculum, or they could be a part of social studies instruction that might introduce some of the history of the disability rights movement.
Selecting the Text
Next, teachers will need to select the text they plan to read with students.
Previous scholarship encourages teachers to evaluate the representations of disabilities in children’s literature (Nasatir, & Horn, 2003; Ostrosky et al., 2015), seeking out positive examples to read in classrooms.
The author finds it helpful to begin with explicitly positive and explicitly negative representations that students can more easily identify.
Checklists such as the one developed by Nasatir and Horn (2003, p. 5) can help teachers determine what aspects of the representation to highlight and discuss.
Building on the discussions of students’ own experiences with disability, teachers may introduce problematic representations of disabilities that are oversimplified or unrealistic.
Students can practice their critical literacy skills by identifying how individuals with disabilities are often portrayed as villainous, foolish, helpless, or superpowered.
Tables 1–3 offer questions to facilitate these discussions.
Close reading with a critical literacy stance invites students to evaluate representations of disability.
Rather than avoiding negative representations, reading texts that include them enables students to challenge and critique stereotypes of disability, which they will inevitably encounter in other texts, media, and everyday interactions.
For example, Stratton (2020) asked students to identify the negative representation of those with limb differences in a variety of pirate texts, and compare it to the representation of wheelchair rugby Paralympian Nick Springer.
This lesson opened up students’ conceptions of what it means to move; students were able to identify new types of movement after engaging with Springer’s example.
As Stratton’s work demonstrates, students can take ownership of this process and then apply it to other texts.
Once students have developed the skills to identify one‐dimensional representations, teachers can introduce texts that feature nuanced portraits of individuals with disabilities as whole, rounded individuals living their everyday lives.
Titles that could be utilized for lessons include Rukhsana Khan’s King for a Day, Maria Gianferrari’s Hello Goodbye Dog, Holly Robinson Peete and Ryan Elizabeth Peete’s My Brother Charlie, Alan Rabinowitz’s A Boy and A Jaguar, and Donna Jo Napoli’s Hands and Hearts; these texts all include nuanced representations that can foster rich discussion.
Resources to find additional texts are included in the “More to Explore” section.
Lesson Plan: My Three Best Friends and Me, Zulay
The text is about Zulay, who is blind, and her decision to run in the field day race.
The authors selected this text as a nuanced depiction that highlights both positive opportunities and approaches to critique.
Intended to take place after students have engaged in instruction to develop their background knowledge of disability.
Participation in other read-alouds with more straightforward positive and negative representations is expected.
Recommend reading the “Close Reading for Disability with a Critical Literacy Stance” charts (see Tables 1–3) to consider whether the disability representation lends itself to consideration through the lens of plot, character, or word choice.
Then, re-read the book alongside the chart for your selected lens.
Identify the questions that will yield productive conversations and important scenes that align with those questions.
Lesson Plan Template
Reminder to plan for accessible, student-centered instruction.
Lays out teacher actions, structures, and accessibility in three columns.
Designed for 45–50 minutes of instruction in third grade.
Utilizes Table 1, the prompting guide for plot.
The lesson plan is divided into three sections to consider what teaching occurs before, during, and after reading.
Before reading, set the purpose for the lesson; this includes goals for both critical literacy and close reading.
During the re-reading of the text, model using explicit think-alouds
After taking notes and discussing the different elements of plot, the class notices a pattern. Students notice that the people around Zulay doubt her, and this impacts her own confidence. Similarly, students notice that Ms. Turner supports Zulay, and that helps her feel ready for the race.
Table 1: Close Reading for Disability with a Critical Literacy Stance: Plot
Read to get the gist | Read with disability in mind | Look for a pattern | Develop a new understanding |
|---|---|---|---|
What is this story mostly about? | What details about disability are present in the plot? | How do these details about disability that are conveyed through the plot fit together? | What messages are conveyed about disability in the plot? |
Where is the story set? | ■ Are characters with disabilities excluded or included in the setting? ■ Is the setting constructed for characters with disabilities to function independently? | Thinking about these questions makes me feel/ think/ wonder….Disability is represented positively/ negatively in this text with story elements like…The author could have but instead _. | There seems to be more than one way that disability is represented in this text. and _. |
What is the problem? | ■ Is a character’s disability a problem that needs to be overcome? ■ Is the problem something that anyone might face, but happens to a person with a disability? ■ Is a character with disabilities the cause of the problem? | ||
What are the other main events? What is the climax of the story? | ■ Are obstacles unrealistically easy or impossibly difficult to overcome? ■ Is violence or bullying a plot point? ■ Are the main events centered on a non- disabled character taking care of a disabled character? ■ Does someone else speak for a character with disabilities? ■ Do characters with disabilities help others? | ||
How is the problem solved? | ■ Does a character with disabilities solve the problem? ■ Does someone else solve the problem for the character with disabilities? ■ Do people work together to solve the problem? ■ Is disability cured by magic? | ||
What is the theme of the story? | ■ Is the lesson learned by the character with a disability, by others, or both? ■ Is a character with a disability inspiring? Are everyday accomplishments celebrated? ■ Do characters need to learn kindness to help a person with a disability? ■ Do characters with disabilities learn to use tools to support their independence? |
Table 2: Close Reading for Disability with a Critical Literacy Stance: Character
Read to get the gist | Read with disability in mind | Look for a pattern | Develop a new understanding |
|---|---|---|---|
What is this story mostly about? | What details about disability are conveyed through character actions and development? | How do the details about disability that are conveyed through character actions and development fit together? | What messages about disability are conveyed through character actions and development? |
Who are the main characters? Who are the secondary characters? | ■ Who tells the story? ■ Is the character with a disability a rounded character? ■ Who has power in the story? | Thinking about these questions makes me feel/think/wonder….Disability is represented positively/ negatively in this text with story elements like…The author could have but instead _. | There seems to be more than one way that disability is represented in this text and . |
How are characters with disabilities described? ■ Is a character with a disability seen as a burden? ■ Do the characters illustrate a stereotype (e.g., wise, evil, childlike, angelic, godly, superpowered, unfriendly)? | |||
How are characters with disabilities illustrated? ■ Are characters with disabilities depicted as ugly, deformed, or monstrous? ■ Are they shown with outdated or problematic accommodations? ■ Is the illustration style the same for characters with a disability as other characters? | |||
What emotions does the character with disabilities experience? ■ Is the character’s emotions tied to their disability (shame, fear, embarrassment)? ■ Are the emotions of the character with a disability oversimplified? | |||
What are the characters with disabilities’ relationships like? ■ Are characters with disabilities excluded? ■ Are characters with disabilities oversexualized or undersexualized? ■ Do characters without disabilities trivialize disability? |
Table 3: Close Reading for Disability with a Critical Literacy Stance: Word Choice
Read to get the gist | Read with disability in mind | Look for a pattern | Develop a new understanding |
|---|---|---|---|
What is this story mostly about? | What details about disability are present in the word choice? | How does the word choice convey messages about disability? | What central idea about disability can be formed from word choice? |
What words are used to describe individuals with disabilities? ■ Are the words positive or negative? ■ Does the author avoid naming the disability (e.g., special, differently abled)? ■ Is the language too simple? ■ Is the language condescending? | Thinking about these questions makes me feel/think/wonder….One pattern I see is ___ with words like ______ Some words fit together, like ___ and make me feel _ These words fit together because they sound The author could have but instead_ | ||
What words make you feel an emotion? ■ What tone is created? ■ Do the words make you feel pity toward the character? Admiration? Connection? | |||
How does language work to position readers and characters? ■ Who might feel like an “insider” or an “outsider” when reading this text? ■ What perspectives are centered and marginalized in this text? ■ What words change your understanding? | |||
What words help you make an image in your mind? ■ Do illustrations and words match? Is there more information in the illustrations than the language? What do the differences tell you? ■ Are you able to imagine individuals with disabilities from a variety of different racial, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds? |
Lesson Plan before reading (Table 4) Sequence Structure Notes on Accessibility
Lesson Sequence | Structure | Notes on Accessibility |
|---|---|---|
Display My Three Best Friends and Me, Zulay under a document camera and a story mountain anchor chart created on first read of text. Activate prior knowledge | Turn and talk | Displaying the chart provides a visual to support recall. |
“Use the story mountain from yesterday to help you summarize the read-aloud. Partner B share first. ” | Partnerships | Partnerships of students within the same reading level range are predetermined and assigned Partner A/Partner B with the higher reader as Partner B. |
One partnership summarizes for the class. Class discussion | Class discussion | Summary should give students access to an accurate recap. |
“Today we are going to re-read this story to deepen our understanding. We will consider how the plot of this story teaches about disability in both positive and negative ways. Before we close read, let’s reflect on what we have learned about disability. What stories are typically told about people with disabilities? Partner A share first. ” | Think, pair, and share | Think time allows students to process the question before responding. |
During Reading Plan for My Three Best Friends and Me, Zulay (Table 5)
Lesson Sequence | Structure | Notes on Accessibility |
|---|---|---|
Display blank Close Reading anchor chart. “We will be using this chart to keep track of our thinking as we close read this text. Create one in your notebook. ” | Create T-chart | Refer to Figure 1. Provide students who need support with fine motor skills a pre-made t-chart. This allows them to focus on the literacy content. |
Display p. 23-24 of the book. “I’m going to re-read a scene. This part of the story comes right after Zulay’s classmates choose field day events. Listen for the problem and think about how this element of the plot teaches about disability. ” | Set purpose for reading | A document camera gives students equal access to the text, allowing them to refer back for evidence rather than relying on recall. |
Read p. 24. “First, I notice that when Zulay says she wants to run the race, the class is, ‘silent as stones. ’ I know that when something I say is met with silence, I feel uncomfortable. I bet that’s how Zulay is feeling. I’m noticing the faces Zulay’s friends make when she says that she wants to run the race. Maya’s mouth is making an ‘oh’ and she’s looking at the back of Zulay’s head. Chyng’s mouth is pushed to the side and she is giving Zulay side-eye. This makes me think that her friends doubt she’ll be able to run the race. ” | Follow along with read-aloud | By citing evidence both from the written text and the illustrations, students who are not yet decoding at this text’s level are included. |
“I’m going to record this event in my t-chart on the left in red. ” | Take notes | Color code the chart so that students can visually differentiate where to record their thinking. |
“Listen as I continue reading. Jot down what you notice about the problem and obstacles the character faces. Remember you can use the illustrations and the text. ” Display and read pp. 25-26. | Follow along with read-aloud | Students with language-based learning disabilities could draw in their t-chart. |
Have students record in their t-charts. Stop and jot | Stop and jot | Prompting students to record their thinking before they share benefits students who need extra time to access vocabulary. |
“Share what you wrote with your partner. Partner A share first. ” Listen to partnerships to identify one to share. | Turn and talk | Coach partnerships to abbreviate names in their note-taking for efficiency. |
Add one example to the plot column. Take notes | Take notes | Refer to Figure 1. |
Read p. 27 and use the routine above. | Follow along with read-aloud, Stop and jot, Turn and talk | Record names of students who would benefit from further instruction. |
After Reading
Lesson Sequence | Structure | Notes on Accessibility |
|---|---|---|
“Let’s review our chart and think, ‘How do these details about disability that are present in the plot fit together?’ Discuss the patterns you notice with your table. Use a blue-colored pencil to record your thinking in the second column on your chart. ” | Small group discussion | Coach students to act out the events to help them think about how Zulay might feel. |
Take notes | Take notes | Provide questions to prompt student discussion. |
Choose a pattern to record on the anchor chart and share. Class discussion | Class discussion | Refer to Table 1 for sample questions. |
Refer to Figure 1. “Let’s use the pattern to grow a bigger idea. Turn and talk: ‘What messages are conveyed about disability in the plot?’” | Turn and talk | Encourage students to actively listen as you whip around the class to share. |
Whip around | Whip around | Whipping around provides everyone an opportunity to speak, demonstrating that all students have valuable ideas. |
Draw on the following prompts for discussion: “The author could have but instead _. ” and “There seems to be more than one way that disability is represented in this text. _ and __. ” | Class discussion | Listening to everyone’s ideas sets students up to participate in this discussion. |
Record a critical understanding on anchor chart. Refer to Figure 1. “Today we used close reading to think critically about how the plot of this story teaches about disability. Close reading helps you understand texts more deeply, analyze how characters with disabilities are represented, and interpret messages that authors send about people with disabilities. When you are reading, look for examples of how disability is represented. ” | Connecting lesson goals to future reading | sets students up to transfer learning. |
Conclusion
Consistent engagement in close reading with a critical literacy stance will encourage students to challenge stereotypes about disability that they encounter in texts, media, and the world.
Take Action:
*Take inventory of your classroom library. Take note of how people with disabilities are represented in the books you have and what additions would support critical conversations.
*Read and discuss a children’s book that includes disability representation with your colleagues. Use Tables 1–3 to prompt discussion. Reflect on your questions and thinking.
*Conduct a read-aloud of a children’s book that includes disability representation. Identify what your students react to, notice, and question. This data will help you plan your close read with a critical literacy stance.
*Teach your students about close reading. Lehman and Roberts’s Falling in Love with Close Reading is a valuable instructional resource.
*Teach a 2-day sequence: an interactive read-aloud of a children’s book that includes disability representation, followed by a close read with a critical literacy stance. Listen and learn from your students.