Unit I: Foundations of American Democracy

1. How are each of the following ideas reflected in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution:

   1. Limited Government

      1. dec. of independence: expresses the idea of limiting gov’t power by highlighting grievances against king george III's abuses and asserting the right to alter or abolish a gov’t that becomes destructive

      2. constitution: implements limited gov’t through a system of checks and balances, separation of powers among branches, and the enumeration of powers in the constitution itself

   2. Natural Rights

      1. dec. of independence: emphasizes the concept of natural rights, asserting that individuals are endowed with unalienable rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness

      2. constitution: protects natural rights through the bill of rights and other amendments, ensuring individual freedoms and liberties

   3. Popular Sovereignty: 

      1. dec. of independence: implied as it states that gov’ts derive their just powers from the consent of the governed

      2.  constitution: a foundational principle, reflected in the preamble's "we the people" and the democratic election of representatives

   4. Republicanism

      1. dec. of independence: call for self-government in the declaration aligns with republican ideals, emphasizing representation and the people's right to alter or abolish oppressive gov’ts

      2. constitution: evident in the establishment of a representative democracy, where elected officials represent the interests of the people

   5. Social Contract

      1. dec. of independence: idea of a social contract is implicit, as the declaration argues for the right of the people to alter or abolish a gov’t that violates their consent

      2. constitution: reflects a social contract by establishing a framework for gov’t based on the consent of the governed and outlining the rights and responsibilities of both citizens and the gov’t

2. Describe the 3 forms of representative democracy and provide an example of how each are visible in contemporary institutions:

   1. Participatory Democracy: emphasizes direct citizen involvement in decision-making processes; encourages active participation, deliberation, and engagement in political affairs (ex. town hall meetings, public forums, and referendums)

   2. Pluralist Democracy: recognizes and accommodates diverse interests and groups in society; assumes that multiple groups compete for influence, and decisions result from negotiation and compromise among these groups (ex. interest groups, advocacy organizations, and lobbying efforts)

   3. Elite Democracy: a small, educated, and influential elite group holds significant influence over decision-making; suggests that a knowledgeable and competent ruling class is better suited to make policy decisions (ex. representative democracies where elected officials, often perceived as an educated and capable elite, make decisions on behalf of the electorate)

3. What were the major weaknesses of the Articles of Confederations that led to the need to create a new constitution?

• weak central gov’t with limited powers: national gov’t lacked the authority to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws effectively

• no executive branch: the absence of a strong executive hindered the enforcement of laws and coordination of national policies

• no national judiciary: articles did not establish a national judiciary system, which made it difficult to resolve disputes between states and enforce laws uniformly

• inability to regulate commerce/taxes: central gov’t had no power to regulate interstate commerce, which led to issues (ex. trade disputes and barriers between states); lacked the authority to levy taxes directly on citizens and had to rely on requisitions from the states, which were often insufficient and unreliable

• weakness in amending articles: amending required unanimous consent from all 13 states; this was impractical and led to a lack of flexibility in adapting to changing circumstances

• no national currency: articles did not provide for a national currency; resulted in a patchwork of state currencies and financial instability

• sovereignty and unilateral actions: each state retained significant sovereignty, often acting unilaterally in matters of foreign policy and trade; undermined the unity and effectiveness of the national gov’t

4. Compare the views of the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists.

5. Describe each of the following constitutional compromises:

   1. Connecticut (Great) Compromise (1787): resolved the dispute between large and small states over representation in the legislature; established a bicameral legislature with a h.o.r (proportional to population) and a senate (equal representation for each state)

   2. Three-Fifths Compromise (1787): addressed the issue of how enslaved individuals would be counted for the purpose of determining a state's population and, consequently, its representation in the h.o.r; three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted, providing a formula for both representation and direct taxation

   3. Electoral College: compromise determined the method of electing the pres.; rather than a direct popular vote, each state would have electors equal to the total number of its representatives and senators; citizens would vote for electors, who would then cast their votes for the pres. candidate

   4. Importation of Slaves: allowed congress to regulate commerce, including the international slave trade, but deferred any action on the issue until 1808; resulted in the importation of slaves to continue for a limited period before congress could consider its prohibition

6. Explain the purpose of Article V of the U.S. Constitution.

   it explains how the constitution can be amended and sets provisions for the process. 

7. How does the debate about government surveillance in response to the 9/11 attacks reflect differing attitudes about the rights of individuals?

   post-9/11 debate on gov’t surveillance reflects a clash between national security and individual rights; supporters argue for necessary measures to prevent terrorism; critics raise concerns about privacy violations

8. How does the debate about the role of the federal government in public education reflect differing attitudes about the role of state government?

   debate over fed. involvement in education showcases differing views on the appropriate level of gov’t control; advocates seek national standards for consistency; opponents argue education is best managed at the state and local levels.

9. How is the concept of federalism reflected in the U.S. Constitution?

   constitution shows federalism, delineating powers between the fed. gov’t and states; articles I, II, and III grant fed. authority, while the 10th amend. reserves powers for states, establishing a system of checks and balances

10. How are each of the following at the heart of the debate over the balance of power between the national and state governments:

    1. 10th amendment: explicitly states that powers not delegated to the fed. gov’t nor prohibited to the states by the constitution are reserved for the states or the people; often invoked to argue for the reservation of certain powers to the states, emphasizing the principle of federalism

    2. 14th amendment: addresses issues of equal protection and due process; established that states must provide equal protection under the law to all citizens; has been used to extend the reach of the bill of rights to the states, limiting their ability to infringe on individual rights

    3.  Commerce Clause: grants congress the power to regulate commerce among the states; interpretation of this clause has been central to debates about the extent of fed. authority; invoked to justify both expansive fed. regulations, especially in the context of interstate commerce, and limitations on fed. power in instances where the regulation may be perceived as intruding on state authority

    4. Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause): grants congress the authority to make laws that are necessary and proper to carry out its enumerated powers; often cited in discussions about implied powers and the extent of fed. authority; has been used to justify legislation that may not be explicitly mentioned in the constitution but is deemed necessary to fulfill congress's enumerated powers

11. How are the SCOTUS cases of McCulloch v. Maryland and United States v. Lopez reflects how the balance of power between national and state governments has changed over time?

    1. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): dealt with the constitutionality of the 2nd bank of the u.s. and maryland's attempt to tax it; court affirmed the constitutionality of the bank and held that congress had the implied power to create the bank under the necessary and proper clause (article 1, section 8), and maryland's attempt to tax the bank was unconstitutional; strengthened the implied powers of the fed. gov’t, establishing that the necessary and proper clause could be used broadly to carry out congress's enumerated powers

       1. reflects a historical trend of broadening federal powers, especially through the interpretation of the necessary and proper clause; contributed to the development of a stronger national gov’t

    2. United States v. Lopez (1995): centered on the constitutionality of the gun-free school zones act, which made it a fed. offense to possess a firearm in a school zone; court held that the law exceeded congress's power under the commerce clause and that possessing a gun near a school did not have a substantial effect on interstate commerce; marked a shift by placing limits on the expansive interpretation of the commerce clause and reasserted federalism

       1. reflects a more recent trend where the supreme court, by limiting congress's use of the commerce clause, signaled a willingness to check and balance federal authority; demonstrates a shift towards reining in certain fed. powers to protect states' roles in governance

12. Explain how federalism provides multiple access points for stakeholders and institutions to influence public policy.

• state gov’t: have significant policymaking authority in areas not explicitly reserved for the fed. gov’t; stakeholders can engage with state gov’ts to influence policies on issues such as education, healthcare, and criminal justice

• local gov’t: further decentralize power, providing additional access points for stakeholders; community organizations and individuals can influence policies at the city or county level, addressing specific local needs and concerns.

• congress: the legislative branch of the fed gov’t creates national laws and policies, so stakeholders can engage with their elected reps, senators, and committees to advocate for specific policies or changes at the fed. level

• judiciary: fed. and state judiciaries play a crucial role in interpreting laws and ensuring constitutional adherence; stakeholders can bring legal challenges to influence policy outcomes or seek redress for perceived injustices

13. How does the sharing of power between the three branches of government constrain national policy making?

• legislative branch (congress):creates laws; president can veto legislation, and congress may override a veto with a 2/3-majority; judiciary can review laws for constitutionality

• executive branch (president): enforces laws and formulates policies; congress holds the power of the purse, approving budgets and controlling funding; judiciary can review executive actions for constitutionality

• judicial branch (courts):interprets laws and ensures constitutional adherence; judicial decisions can be influenced by the interpretation of laws by congress and executive actions; constitutional amendments can modify the court's interpretation.

•  system of checks and balances among the three branches prevents the concentration of power, ensuring that no single branch can dominate policymaking; constraint on power protects against potential abuses and encourages collaboration in shaping national policies
  

Unit II: Interaction Among Branches 

1. Describe Congress:

2. Why is there a difference in the forms of debate in each house?

   1. h.o.r: tends to have more structured and restrictive debate rules; rules committee in the house sets the parameters for debate, including time limits and amendments

   2. senate: generally less structured, and individual senators have more flexibility; the filibuster, unique to the senate, allows prolonged debate unless a 3/5 majority votes for cloture to end it   

3. Explain how is the policy making process different in each house?

   1. House of Representatives: more centralized power, especially in budgetary matters; committees play a crucial role in shaping legislation; strict time limits on debates and limited amendments

   2. Senate: allows for more individual influence; committees still hold significant power but are not as strictly controlled by leadership; filibusters and cloture can impact the legislative process

4. Describe how chamber specific procedures, rules and roles impact the policy making process?

   1. House of Representatives: speaker of the house is a powerful leadership position, controlling the legislative agenda; strict rules on debate, committee assignments, and floor procedures; committee chairs have substantial authority

   2. Senate: vice pres. serves as the president of the senate but can only vote in the case of a tie; majority leader holds significant power but has less control over individual senators; committee chairs have influence, but seniority is less rigidly followed

5. What are the challenges that congress faces with generating a budget (types of spending, entitlements, taxes)?

   mandatory spending (obligatory under existing laws) is driven by entitlement programs like social security and medicare, which poses fiscal difficulties due to rising costs; reforms to entitlements are politically sensitive, hindering bipartisan consensus; debates over tax policy, rates, and deductions further complicate the budget process

6. Explain how pork barrel legislation and log rolling affect lawmaking in both chambers.

   1. pork barrel legislation: involves projects or funding that primarily benefit a specific legislator's home district or state (used to secure support for broader legislation)

   2. log rolling: refers to the practice of exchanging support for one legislative initiative in return for support on another; facilitates compromise and coalition-building but can lead to the inclusion of unrelated provisions

      pork barrel and log rolling can expedite the legislative process by garnering support for bills; but, they also raise ethical concerns and may result in the inclusion of projects with questionable merit

7. How do each of the following influence congressional behavior and governing effectiveness?

   1. Ideological Divisions: ideological divisions can lead to polarization, making it challenging to find common ground on legislative issues; members may align more with party ideologies than compromise, impacting the ability to pass bipartisan legislation; gridlock and difficulty passing major legislation and can lead to a lack of cooperation, making it challenging to address pressing national issues

   2. Gerrymandering & Redistricting: gerrymandering can create safe districts for incumbents, incentivizing them to prioritize party loyalty over broader concerns; reps in safe districts may face less pressure to compromise or appeal to a diverse constituency; can contribute to the polarization of congress by creating districts dominated by one party; may result in a lack of competitive elections, reducing the need for representatives to appeal to a broader range of constituents

   3. Divided Government: divided gov’t, where different parties control the executive and legislative branches, often leads to increased partisanship; members may be more focused on opposing the other party's agenda than on collaboration; can result in legislative gridlock, as opposing parties struggle to pass significant legislation; compromise becomes essential, but it may be challenging to achieve, affecting the ability to address critical issues

   4. Differing Roles of Trustee, Delegate, and Politico:

      1. trustee: members act according to their own judgment and interpretation of constituents' best interests

      2. delegate: members act as conduits for the preferences of their constituents

      3. politico: members balance their role as trustee and delegate, considering both their judgment and constituents' views

         the choice of role can influence the degree of responsiveness to public opinion; striking a balance (politico) may enhance the rep’s effectiveness by considering both individual judgment and constituents' preferences

8. Describe how Baker v. Carr and Shaw v. Reno have impacted the legislative branch.

   baker v. carr (1962) established "one person, one vote," leading to the reapportionment of legislative districts for more equal representation; shaw v. reno (1993) addressed racial gerrymandering, limiting race as the main factor in drawing districts; both cases influenced the legislative branch's structure and power balance

9. How does the president use formal and informal powers to accomplish a policy agenda?

   presidents use formal powers (e.g., veto, executive orders, appointments) for direct action; informal powers (e.g., shaping public opinion, building coalitions, executive agreements) influence policy outcomes; pres. agenda is achieved through negotiations with congress, executive orders, and using the bully pulpit to garner public support

10. How does the president’s agenda create tension and confrontations with the Congress?

    president's agenda can lead to tension with congress, stemming from competing priorities, ideological differences, and power struggles; conflicts may arise over legislative proposals, budgets, and executive orders; veto use, threats, or executive actions can strain the inter-branch relationship; divided gov’t, where the pres. party lacks control in both chambers, often escalates confrontations, making major legislation passage challenging and increasing reliance on executive actions to fulfill the policy agenda

11.  How does Federalist No. 70 justify having a single executive?

    in fed. 70, hamilton argues for a single executive, emphasizing the need for energy, efficiency, and accountability in the executive branch. he reasons that a plural executive or council would lack the unity and decisiveness required for executive functions. hamilton's argument is rooted in the idea that a single executive, accountable to the people, can respond promptly to challenges and implement policies more efficiently than a collective executive body

12. Explain how presidents have interpreted and justified their use of formal and informal powers?

    presidents interpret and justify their use of both formal and informal powers based on constitutional authority, historical precedent, and necessity. formal powers (ex. executive orders, veto) are often grounded in constitutional provisions and the idea of inherent presidential authority. presidents may cite the take care clause (article 2, section 3) to justify executive actions that ensure laws are faithfully executed. informal powers (ex. executive agreements, the bully pulpit) are justified as necessary tools for effective governing

13. How do each of the following impact the presidency?

    1. Modern Technology/Social Media: transformed the presidency by providing direct and instantaneous communication with the public; platforms (ex. twitter, facebook, and instagram) allow presidents to reach millions of people, shaping public opinion and bypassing traditional media gatekeepers; this direct communication also poses challenges, as messages can be unfiltered, leading to controversies or misinterpretations

    2. National Broadcast of the State of the Union: annual state of the union address allows pres. to outline their policy agenda, articulate priorities, and address the nation; provides a platform to rally public support, shape legislative priorities, and project an image of leadership. presidents can use this address to influence public opinion, garner support for policies, and set the tone for the legislative agenda

    3. Bully Pulpit: pres. can leverage the bully pulpit to push policy initiatives, advocate for legislative priorities, and communicate directly with the american people; speeches, press conferences, and public appearances become opportunities to set the agenda, frame issues, and build public support

14. Explain how each of the following lay the foundation for powers of the judicial branch and its checks on the other branches:

    1. Article III: establishes the judicial branch and outlines the powers of the fed. judiciary and grants the authority to the supreme court and allows congress to create lower fed. courts; specifies that fed. judges hold their offices for life (subject to good behavior) to ensure judicial independence

    2. Federalist No. 78: provides a justification for the powers of the judicial branch; hamilton argues that the judiciary is the least dangerous branch and lacks the power of the purse and the sword; it relies on judgment and does not possess force or will to implement its decisions; judiciary was seen as a guardian of the constitution, having the authority to interpret laws and strike down unconstitutional actions

    3. Marbury v. Madison: landmark supreme court case that establishes the principle of judicial review; court can review the constitutionality of legislative and executive actions; held that the court had the power to declare acts of congress unconstitutional and, in doing so, set a precedent for the judiciary's role in checking the other branches

15. How do precedents and stare decisis affect judicial decision making?

    past court decisions and the doctrine of stare decisis (let the decision stand) play a crucial role in judicial decision-making; courts often rely on precedents to guide their interpretations of the law and maintain consistency; stare decisis promotes stability in legal principles and provides predictability in the legal system; precedents are persuasive authority that influences judges' decisions

16. What has been the impact of ideological changes in the composition of the Supreme Court due presidential appointments?

    changes in the ideological composition of the supreme court, driven by presidential appointments, can have a profound impact on legal interpretations and decisions; different judicial philosophies may lead to shifts in the court's stance on constitutional interpretation, individual rights, and societal issues; court's decisions may reflect prevailing political ideologies and shape national policy (ex. civil rights, reproductive rights, and separation of powers)

17. How can unpopular Supreme Court decisions be challenged by Congress and the president?

    constitutional amendments can be proposed by congress to overturn specific supreme court decisions; legislation can be introduced to alter the legal landscape in response to a court decision; presidents can influence the court indirectly through appointments and advocacy for certain legal interpretations.

18. How does the bureaucracy carry out the responsibilities of the federal government?

    the bureaucracy, with executive agencies and departments, implements and administers fed. laws and programs; bureaucratic agencies create regulations, enforce laws, and provide services to the public; responsibilities include policy implementation, program management, and regulatory enforcement.

19. Explain the impact of political patronage, civil service and merit reforms on the bureaucracy.

    historically, political patronage involved appointing individuals based on loyalty rather than merit; civil service reforms (ex. pendleton act) aimed to professionalize the bureaucracy by introducing merit-based hiring; civil service reforms established merit-based hiring and protection against political firings; these reforms aimed to ensure expertise, professionalism, and nonpartisanship in the bureaucracy

20. How does the federal bureaucracy use delegated discretionary authority for rule making and implementation?

    congress delegates authority to bureaucratic agencies to create rules and regulations; bureaucratic agencies use this discretionary authority to interpret and implement laws within their policy domains; rule-making involves public input through notice and comment procedures

21. Explain how each of the following impacts the relationship between congress and the executive branch:

    1. Oversight: refers to congress's constitutional authority to monitor and supervise the executive branch's implementation of laws; allows congress to ensure that fed. agencies and officials adhere to legislative intent and operate within the law; hearings, investigations, and inquiries provide congress with the means to review executive actions, policies, and spending; this is crucial for accountability, transparency, and maintaining a checks-and-balances system; it impacts the relationship by enabling congress to question, scrutinize, and, if necessary, correct executive decisions and conduct

    2. Committee Hearings: serve as a key tool for congressional oversight to allow congress to gather information, question witnesses, and assess the executive branch; provide a platform for holding officials accountable, influencing public opinion, and shaping legislation; information obtained enhances congress's ability to check and balance the executive branch

    3. Power of the Purse: congress utilizes this power to set priorities, influence policy implementation, and impose conditions on executive actions; through the appropriation process and the ability to withhold or allocate funds based on policy priorities, congress can shape the executive branch's agenda, demand accountability, and enforce legislative priorities, thereby influencing and checking the executive branch

22. How does the president ensure that executive branch agencies and departments carry out their responsibilities in concert with the goals of the administration?

    pres. uses leadership setting direction and appointing individuals, where the issuance of executive orders and directives provides a formal mechanism for the pres. to guide agency actions, and the budgetary process allows the president to reflect policy priorities. the president's ability to shape agency leadership through appointments and personnel decisions is instrumental in fostering alignment with administration goals.

23. Sometimes there are competing interests between congress, the president and the federal courts, explain how the formal and informal powers of each branch can maintain accountability of the bureaucracy?

    in cases where competing interests arise between congress, the president, and the fed. courts, a system of checks and balances ensures accountability for the bureaucracy. congress, through its formal powers (legislative oversight, power of the purse), scrutinizes agency actions and influences priorities.

    the pres., using formal powers (ex. vetoes and appointments) and informal powers (ex. public approval), maintains a role in influencing both legislative and bureaucratic activities.

    fed. courts exercise their formal power (ex. judicial review) and interpret the constitutionality of agency actions, while informal powers (ex. public perception, legal precedents) guide and constrain agency behavior.

Unit III: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

1. How does the U.S. Constitution protect individual liberties and rights?

   constitution safeguards individual liberties through checks and balances, separation of powers, and explicit provisions; 14th amend. extends these rights for equal protection under the law; fundamental principles such as due process, freedom of speech, religion, and the right to a fair trial are central to the constitution's protection of individual rights

2. Describe the Bill of Rights.

   bill of rights (1791) consists of the first 10 amendments; protect various individual rights, including freedom of speech, religion, and the press (1st), the right to bear arms (2nd), protection against unreasonable searches and seizures (4th), the right to a fair trial (6th and 7th), and protection from cruel and unusual punishment (8th). these rights serve as a safeguard against potential gov’t overreach and ensure the protection of citizens' fundamental freedoms

3. How has the interpretation and application of the First Amendment’s establishment clause and free exercise clause been represented in the following cases?

   1. Engel v. Vitale (1962): court ruled that the state-sponsored prayer in public schools violated the establishment clause of the 1st amend.; the decision established a precedent against gov’t-led prayer in public institutions, emphasizing the separation of church and state

   2. Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): court ruled in favor of the amish community, holding that their religious beliefs exempted them from compulsory schooling beyond the 8th grade; this decision underscored the protection of religious practices, balancing the state's interest in education with individual freedom of religion.

4. How has the Supreme Court ruled regarding symbolic speech and what case in 1969 demonstrates the interpretation?

   tinker v. des moines (1969), the court recognized symbolic speech as protected under the 1st amend; held that students' wearing of black armbands in protest of the vietnam war constituted symbolic speech, protected unless causing a substantial disruption to the school environment; this decision emphasized the importance of free speech rights in public schools

5. In what ways has efforts to balance order and individual freedom led to limits on free speech? What limitation came from the ruling in Schenck v. United States (1919)?

   efforts to balance order and individual freedom have led to limitations on free speech, especially in circumstances where speech poses a clear and present danger; the ruling in schenck v. u.s. (1919) established the "clear and present danger" test, allowing limitations on speech that presents a danger to public order or safety; decision held that distributing anti-draft materials during ww1 posed such a danger, justifying restrictions on speech

6. Describe the concept of “prior restraint” and how the ruling in New York times Co. v. United States (1971) relates to this concept.

   prior restraint refers to gov’t actions that restrict speech before it occurs, often involving censorship; in ny times v. u.s. (1971), the court ruled against the gov’t attempt to prevent the publication of classified documents related to the vietnam war; the decision emphasized a heavy presumption against prior restraint, stating that the gov’t bears a heavy burden to justify such restrictions, and in this case, it failed to meet that burden; ruling reinforced the principle that prior restraint is disfavored and should be reserved for special circumstances

7. Describe two ways in which the Second Amendment can be interpreted and how this can create problems with the Supreme Court’s interpretation of individual liberty.

   2nd amend. can be interpreted in different ways, leading to debates and challenges. one interpretation emphasizes an individual's right to own firearms for personal protection and self-defense; another interpretation sees it as primarily related to the collective right of state militias; court's decisions on 2nd amend. cases can impact the balance between individual freedoms and societal order (ex. mcdonald v. chicago)

8. Explain how the Supreme Court has attempted to balance claims of individual freedom with laws enforcement of procedures that promote public order and safety.

   1. 8th Amendment (Cruel and Unusual Punishment): court strives to balance individual freedom claims with law enforcement objectives. in capital punishment cases, the court sets criteria to prevent arbitrary or excessive use of the death penalty, considering factors like age and mental capacity to avoid cruel punishment; it has rejected practices such as mandatory death sentences that could result in disproportionate punishment

   2. Second Amendment (Right to Bear Arms): court addresses the balance between individual freedom and public safety regarding the right to bear arms. while affirming an individual's right to own firearms for self-defense (district of columbia v. heller, 2008), the court also recognizes that the gov’t has an interest in regulating firearms to promote public safety. court has upheld certain restrictions on gun ownership, such as prohibiting felons and individuals with mental illness from owning firearms. striking this balance involves determining the scope of gun regulations that can be enacted without unduly infringing on the individual's right to bear arms while ensuring public safety

   3. 4th Amendment (Searches and Seizures): requiring law enforcement to obtain warrants based on probable cause, the court balances individual privacy rights with the needs of public order and safety; exceptions to the warrant requirement for serioouos circumstances or when evidence is in plain view; GPS tracking and cellphone searches are recognized by court as the need for evolving legal standards to protect individual privacy while enabling effective law enforcement

9. How is the doctrine of selective incorporation reflected in the case McDonald v. Chicago (2010)? What constitutional justification has been used by the court for selective incorporation?

   mcdonald v. chicago (2010) showed the doctrine of selective incorporation, extending the bill of rights to states via the 14th amend. due process clause. court ruled that the 2nd amend. right to bear arms is incorporated and applicable to states, establishing it as a fundamental right protected from state infringement. this decision built on the precedent set in district of columbia v. heller (2008), which applied the 2nd amend. to the fed. gov’t. constitutional justification for selective incorporation is rooted in the 2th amend. due process clause, preventing states from depriving individuals of fundamental liberties without due process of law.

10. Which amendments have been incorporated by the Miranda rule?

    miranda rule, established in miranda v. arizona (1966), incorporates 5th amend. protections against self-incrimination; it mandates law enforcement to inform individuals of their right to remain silent and to an attorney before custodial interrogations, selectively integrating elements of the 5th amend. into the state criminal justice process

11. How have pretrial rights of the accused and protection from unreasonable search and seizure been protected?

    pre-trial rights of the accused (ex. right to a speedy and public trial, right to confront witnesses, and right to counsel) are protected under the 6th amend. these rights ensure a fair and just legal process for the accused. protection from unreasonable search and seizure is safeguarded by the 4th amend. exclusionary rule, established in mapp v. ohio (1961), ensures that evidence obtained through unconstitutional searches and seizures is excluded from trial, providing a remedy to deter law enforcement misconduct

12. Explain how the following cases have been applied to provide protections of citizen liberties:

    1. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): court established the right to counsel for indigent defendants in state criminal proceedings. before this, the right to counsel was generally understood to apply only to fed. cases. but, gideon extended this right to state defendants facing serious criminal charges; court held that providing legal representation to individuals who could not afford it was essential for a fair trial; all criminal defendants, regardless of financial means, have the right to legal representation, reinforcing the principle of "equal justice under law."

    2. Mapp v. Ohio (1961): court introduced the exclusionary rule as a means of protecting citizens from unlawful searches and seizures; case involved the illegal search of mapp's home by law enforcement looking for evidence of a bombing suspect. court ruled that evidence obtained through unconstitutional searches and seizures is inadmissible in court. mapp v. ohio has been applied to suppress evidence obtained unlawfully, ensuring that the legal system does not condone or benefit from constitutional violations by law enforcement. exclusionary rule is a crucial mechanism for safeguarding citizen liberties and upholding the integrity of the criminal justice system

13. Although the right to privacy is not explicitly a protected right, explain how the Supreme Court has interpreted the constitution to protect citizen’s right to privacy from infringement by the states.

    the right to privacy is not explicitly stated in the constitution, but the court has inferred and protected it through multiple constitutional amendments. in griswold v. connecticut (1965) the court recognized many privacy rights emanating from various constitutional provisions (ex. 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 9th). roe v. wade (1973) and lawrence v. texas (2003) further expanded privacy rights, particularly in the context of reproductive rights and consensual adult relationships. court has interpreted the constitution to safeguard citizens' privacy from state infringement, emphasizing the importance of personal autonomy.

14. How have individuals been protected from discrimination based on race, national origin, religion and sex in the Constitution and acts of congress? How have these things supported and motivated social movements?

    14th amend. guarantees equal protection under the law, while the civil rights act (1964) prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; voting rights act (1965) addresses racial discrimination in voting. these legal protections have supported and motivated social movements, including the civil rights movement and the women's rights movement. demand for equal rights and legal recognition has driven these movements, leading to legislative changes and societal shifts toward greater inclusivity.

15. Explain how the government responded to the civil rights movement.

    gov’t responded to the civil rights movement through legislative and executive actions. pres. johnson signed the civil rights act (1964) and the voting rights act (1965) into law, addressing segregation, discrimination, and voting rights violations. these landmark pieces of legislation aimed to break down racial discrimination in education, employment, and public accommodations.

16. Explain how the Supreme court has restricted civil rights of minority groups and at other times protected those rights.

    court has played a pivotal role in both restricting and protecting the civil rights of minority groups. plessy v. ferguson (1896) upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, limiting the rights of african americans; brown v. board of education (1954) overturned this precedent, declaring state-sponsored segregation unconstitutional. korematsu v. u.s. (1944) upheld the internment of japanese americans during ww2, showing a restriction of civil rights, but hirabayashi v. u.s. (1943) and the redress provided by the civil liberties act (1988), acknowledged and rectified past injustices. court's rulings have been dynamic, reflecting shifts in societal attitudes and legal interpretations over time

Unit IV: Political Participation 

1. How do different interpretations of core values (individualism, equality of opportunity, free enterprise, rule of law and limited government) affect the attitudes of citizens about the role of government?

   1. individualism: those emphasizing individualism might lean towards limited gov’t involvement in personal affairs and greater emphasis on individual freedoms

   2. equality of opportunity: advocates for equality of opportunity may support gov’t interventions to level the playing field, ensuring that everyone has a fair chance

   3. free enterprise: individuals valuing free enterprise may prefer minimal gov’t interference in the economy to foster competition and innovation

   4. rule of law: those emphasizing the rule of law generally support a gov’t that operates within established legal frameworks and ensures justice

   5. limited government: advocates for limited gov’t may seek to minimize gov’t intrusion in various aspects of life

2. What factors influence and individual’s political attitudes and values through political socialization? Which factor is the most important?

   1. family: plays a significant role, as individuals often adopt the political leanings of their parents or guardians; most important

   2. education: educational institutions shape political perspectives by providing exposure to diverse ideas and historical contexts; more education = more liberal 

   3. peers: peer groups contribute to political socialization as individuals engage in discussions and share viewpoints with friends and colleagues

   4. media: mass media (ex. news outlets and social media) plays a crucial role in shaping political attitudes by providing information and framing issues

   5. religion: religious beliefs can influence political values and attitudes on issues such as morality and social justice

   6. cultural background: cultural factors, including ethnicity and regional differences, can impact political perspectives

   7. economic status: economic experiences and class can shape attitudes toward government interventions in the economy

3. Explain how each of the following may affect political attitudes and socialization

   1. Age: political attitudes are influenced by age, with younger individuals often more open to progressive ideas, while older individuals may hold traditional views; life experiences and exposure to diverse perspectives shape political beliefs, with increased political engagement as people age

      Gender: women may prioritize healthcare and education, while men focus on economic and defense issues; gender roles and societal expectations influence political socialization, with changing norms contributing to evolving gender-based political attitudes

      Major Political Events: events like wars or economic crises reshape perceptions (ex. 9/11 impacting national security views, civil rights movement altering attitudes toward racial equality)

      Race: different racial and ethnic groups have distinct perspectives on issues such as discrimination, immigration, and social justice; historical experiences, like systemic racism, influence political attitudes, with the civil rights struggle leaving a lasting impact on african americans' views

      Socioeconomic Status: factors like income, education, and occupation influence political attitudes; higher SES correlates with increased political engagement and economic policy focus, while lower SES individuals prioritize social welfare and economic inequality issues; education level is linked to political awareness and participation

4. Describe the elements of a scientific public opinion poll.

   a scientific poll uses a representative sample with randomly selected respondents and neutral language; sample reflects population demographics, and weighting addresses imbalances; margin of error indicates result reliability; mass surveys involve about 1,500 responses, following steps like defining the target population, using random selection, avoiding voluntary responses, preventing sampling bias, ensuring representativeness, and presenting the margin of error

5. Describe how public opinion polls are used and the reliability of the data.

   public opinion polls gauge population views on various issues, informing political campaigns, guiding policy decisions, and providing insights for businesses and media; data reliability depends on factors like sampling method quality, question clarity and neutrality, and sample representativeness; well-conducted polls with random sampling and appropriate methodologies produce more reliable and accurate data

6. What is the ideological stance for the two major U.S. Political parties?

   democrats generally advocate for a more active role of gov’t in addressing social and economic issues, supporting progressive social policies, and emphasizing social equality. republicans typically favor limited gov’t intervention, emphasizing individual liberties, free-market principles, and a conservative approach to social issues

7. How does public policy reflect the attitudes and beliefs of citizens at a particular time? (give examples)

   public policy often reflects the prevailing attitudes and beliefs of citizens at a particular time; ex. during the civil rights movement in the 1960s, changing attitudes toward racial equality influenced policies such as the civil rights act (1964); shifts in public opinion on environmental conservation have influenced policies addressing climate change and environmental protection

8. How has the value of individual liberty and governments efforts to promote order/stability been reflected in policy debates over time?

   tension between individual liberty and gov’t efforts for order is a recurring theme in policy debates; surveillance policies balancing privacy rights with national security and gun control debates balancing 2nd amend. rights with public safety show this challenge

9. Explain how each of the following ideologies stand on the role of government in regulating the market place:

   1. Conservative: generally advocate for a limited role of gov’t in regulating the marketplace; often support free-market principles and believe that minimal gov’t intervention leads to more efficient and prosperous economic outcomes; argue that reduced regulations encourage business growth, innovation, and job creation.; emphasize the importance of individual freedom, private enterprise, and self-regulation within the market

   2. Liberal: typically support a more active role for gov’t in regulating the marketplace. They argue that gov’t intervention is necessary to address economic inequalities, protect consumers, and ensure fair competition; may advocate for regulations that promote social justice, environmental sustainability, and worker rights; believe that gov’t oversight can help prevent abuses by powerful corporations and promote a more equitable distribution of wealth and opportunities

   3. Libertarian: take an even more limited approach to the role of gov’t in regulating the marketplace; often advocate for a laissez-faire approach, emphasizing individual liberty and voluntary interactions; argue that markets should operate with minimal interference, allowing competition and the natural forces of supply and demand to determine economic outcomes; believe that excessive gov’t regulations hinder economic freedom, limit individual choices, and may lead to unintended consequences

10. Explain how each of the following ideologies stand on the role of government in addressing social issues:

    1. Conservative: generally advocate for a traditional and limited role of gov’t in addressing social issues; emphasize individual responsibility, community values, and often lean towards preserving traditional social norms; may resist gov’t intervention in matters such as marriage, family structure, and cultural values, preferring to rely on local communities and voluntary organizations to address social challenges

    2. Liberal: typically support a more active role for gov’t in addressing social issues; believe that gov’t intervention is necessary to promote social justice, equality, and protect the rights of marginalized groups; may advocate for policies related to civil rights, gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and social welfare programs to address issues like poverty and healthcare disparities; see gov’t as a tool for advancing progressive social values

    3. Libertarian: generally favor a minimal role of gov’t in addressing social issues. They prioritize individual freedom and autonomy, arguing that people should have the liberty to make their own choices in matters such as relationships, lifestyle, and personal conduct; often view gov’t involvement in social issues as infringing on individual liberties and prefer a more hands-off approach, encouraging voluntary solutions and non-coercive interactions

Unit VI: Political Participation 

1. Describe how each of the following Amendments relate to the expansion of opportunities for political participation:

   1. 15th Amendment (1870): aimed to expand political participation by prohibiting racial-based denial of voting rights; addressed historical disenfranchisement of black men, marking progress, but discriminatory practices persisted

      17th Amendment (1913): expanded political participation by allowing direct election of u.s. senators; aimed to make the senate more directly accountable to the electorate, providing citizens with a direct role in shaping the composition of the senate

      19th Amendment (1920): crucial in expanding political participation by granting women the right to vote

      24th Amendment (1964): contributed to the expansion of political participation by prohibiting poll taxes in federal elections, disproportionately affecting black voters and those with lower SES

      26th Amendment (1971): expanded political participation by lowering the voting age from 21 to 18, responding to the argument that individuals eligible for military drafting should also have the right to vote; increased political engagement for young adults

2. What pieces of legislation led to the expansion of opportunities for political participation?

   1. Voting Rights Act of 1965: enacted to overcome barriers, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, that were used to disenfranchise african american voters; aimed to ensure equal voting rights for all citizens, particularly in states with a history of discriminatory voting practices

   2. Civil Rights Act of 1964: primarily known for addressing racial segregation and discrimination; also contained provisions prohibiting discriminatory practices that hindered african americans from registering to vote 

   3. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990: not specifically focused on voting; still contributed to expanding opportunities for political participation by requiring accessible polling places and accommodations for voters with disabilities

3. How do each of the following affect voter turnout in the U.S.?

   1. State Voter Registration Laws: determine the requirements and processes for citizens to register to vote; some states have more restrictive registration procedures, (ex. early deadlines or stringent identification requirements) which may pose barriers to voter participation; states with more lenient or accessible registration laws may experience higher voter turnout as they reduce obstacles 

   2. Voting Procedures (How, When, Where): accessibility to polling places, early voting options, and the availability of absentee or mail-in voting can impact voter participation (ex. states that offer convenient early voting periods or flexible absentee voting options may see higher turnout); greater flexibility for individuals = higher turnout 

   3. Mid-term vs. Presidential Elections: pres. elections draw higher turnout due to increased media attention, heightened public engagement, and the perception of greater significance; mid-term elections, (race for congress, other offices, etc.) often experience lower turnout 

4. How do demographic characteristics and political efficacy affect voter turnout?

   1. age: younger individuals often exhibit lower voter turnout compared to older demographics; this can vary, and efforts to engage younger voters, such as addressing issues that resonate with them, can positively impact turnout

   2. education: individuals with higher levels of education tend to have higher voter turnout; education can correlate with increased awareness of political issues and a greater sense of civic duty

   3. income: higher-income individuals often have higher voter turnout; can be influenced by factors such as education, as well as the resources and time available to engage in the political process

   4. race and ethnicity: historically, minority groups, particularly african americans and hispanics, have faced barriers to voting, influencing turnout

   5. gender: historically, women have had slightly higher voter turnout than men; this gap has narrowed over time, and gender-based variations are generally smaller compared to other demographic factors

   6. political efficacy: individuals with a strong belief in their ability to understand and influence politics (internal efficacy) are more likely to vote; confidence in one's understanding of political issues and the impact of their vote enhances their motivation to participate

      1. trust in the gov’t and institutions (external efficacy) also influences voter turnout; higher levels of trust are associated with increased political engagement, including voting

   7. political interest:  individuals with a genuine interest in politics are more likely to vote; high political interest is often linked to a sense of responsibility and engagement with the democratic process

5. How do each of the following factors affect voter choice?

   1. Party Identification/Ideology: strong party identification or ideological alignment often guides voter choice; voters tend to support candidates and policies that align with their party or ideological preferences

   2. Candidate Characteristics: personal traits (ex. charisma, likability, experience, and communication skills) can influence voter choice; candidates who resonate with voters on a personal level may gain more support

   3. Contemporary Political Issues: voters often base their choice on current political issues and how well candidates address those concerns; political climate and prominent issues during an election can sway voter preferences

   4. Religion: religious beliefs may influence voter choice, especially on issues aligned with religious values; candidates who align with voters' religious perspectives may gain support from those religious communities

   5. Gender: gender can influence voter choice, with some voters expressing preferences for candidates of a specific gender; issues related to gender (ex. reproductive rights, gender equality) may also impact choices

   6. Race/Ethnicity: voters may identify with candidates who share their racial or ethnic background, and issues related to racial and ethnic concerns can influence choices

6. Describe how each of the following act as linkage institutions:

   1. Parties: connect citizens to politics by organizing preferences, mobilizing voters, and presenting candidates; translate public sentiments into policy agendas, shaping gov’t direction

   2. Interest Groups: represent specific concerns, acting as intermediaries between citizens and policymakers; lobbying and advocacy can amplify voices, allowing individuals with shared interests to influence policy

   3. Elections: directly connect citizens to the political system, as voters express preferences for candidates and policies; determine political representation, translating public opinions into political power

   4. Media: serves as a vital linkage by informing citizens about political events, policies, and candidates; shapes public opinion, influences discourse, and connects individuals to the broader political landscape

7. What are the tasks/functions of political parties?

   political parties represent diverse interests, mobilize voters, and shape electoral outcomes; they develop positions on issues, articulate policy goals, and present agendas; parties recruit candidates aligned with their values, influence the political agenda, structure the gov’t, and educate the public about political issues, government functions, and policy choices

8. Explain why and how political parties change and adapt.

   1. Candidate-centered campaigns: parties adjust strategies as candidates gain prominence, allowing individual styles and messages to shape campaigns

   2. Modify Policies and Messaging: parties update policies and messaging to align with changing public sentiments and remain relevant

   3. Structure of Parties: internal structures evolve to accommodate shifts in leadership, membership, and strategic priorities

   4. Communication: parties adapt communication strategies to incorporate new technologies, platforms, and media landscapes

9. Explain how the winner-take-all system serves as a structural barrier to third-party and independent candidates.

   winner-take-all system hinders 3rd-party and independent candidates due to its lack of proportional representation. winning candidates take all the electoral votes or seats in a district, making it challenging for alternatives to amass enough support; perception of "wasted votes" and the concentrated power in major parties make it difficult for 3rd parties to gain viability, contributing to a 2-party dominance

10. What purposes do Interest groups serve? How do they influence elections and policymaking?

    interest groups lobby for policies aligned with members' interests, representing concerns and seeking access to gov’t officials; they shape elections and policymaking by supporting candidates aligned with their goals; lobbying engages policymakers directly to influence legislative decisions, while grassroots mobilization involves members and the public supporting or opposing policies

11. Describe relationships within “iron triangles”.

    iron triangles are networks of collaboration that form among gov’t agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups. these relationships are characterized by mutual benefit, where gov’t agencies receive support and funding, congressional committees gain information and backing for legislative initiatives, and interest groups secure influence over policymaking

12. How are interest groups impacted by the following?

    inequality of economic resources significantly impacts interest groups, with wealthier ones having a distinct advantage in influencing policymakers and shaping public opinion; economic inequality creates a disparity in access to decision-makers, giving more influence to well-funded groups

    unequal access to policymakers poses a challenge for less well-funded groups, limiting their ability to advocate effectively

13. free rider problem further complicates matters, as individuals can benefit from group efforts without actively participating or contributing, undermining collective action and making it challenging to mobilize sustained support

14. How do competing actors such as interest groups, professional organizations, social movements, the military and bureaucratic agencies influence the federal budget process?

    competing actors (ex. interest groups, professional organizations, social movements, the military, and bureaucratic agencies) influence the fed. budget process through lobbying, campaign contributions, expert testimony, grassroots mobilization, agenda setting, strategic planning, and interactions with congress. they engage in advocacy, negotiations, and strategic communication to shape budget priorities and allocations in alignment with their interests.

15. Explain how the Electoral College impacts democratic participation.

    impacts democratic participation by introducing a winner-takes-all system in most states, potentially discouraging voter turnout in non-competitive states. voters in safe states may feel their votes have less impact, reducing overall engagement. swing states may experience heightened participation, as voters there perceive their influence on the outcome to be more significant.

16. What are the benefits or drawbacks of each of the following on modern campaigns:

    1. Professional consultants: benefits: expert guidance enhances campaign strategy and messaging; drawbacks: costly, potentially sidelining grassroots efforts and favoring candidates with extensive resources

    2. Campaign costs and fundraising: benefits: financial resources enable broader outreach and advertising; drawbacks: high costs may favor wealthy candidates, potentially excluding others and reinforcing money's role in politics

    3. Duration of election cycles: benefits: prolonged cycles allow for thorough candidate scrutiny; drawbacks: exhaustive campaigns may lead to voter fatigue, reducing overall civic engagement

    4. Reliance of social media for communication and fundraising: benefits: allows cost-effective communication and broadens reach; drawbacks: potential for misinformation, echo chambers, and manipulation; may favor candidates with tech-savvy teams

17. How does federal legislation and case law pertaining to campaign finance demonstrate the role of money and free speech in the following:

    1. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA): aims to regulate the influence of money in politics; demonstration: illustrates a legislative effort to balance the role of money with the need for fair and transparent elections by restricting soft money contributions and issue advocacy

    2. Citizens united v. Federal Election Commission (2010): court decision lifting restrictions on independent political expenditures by corporations and unions; demonstration: reflects a judicial interpretation emphasizing the 1st amend. protection of free speech, asserting that political spending is a form of expression

18. Explain the media’s role as a linkage institution.

    media serves as a linkage institution by connecting citizens to the political process; it informs the public, shapes political agendas, and facilitates communication between citizens and policymakers; news coverage, the media influences public opinion, making it a crucial component of the democratic process

19. How does the media’s use of polling impact elections?

    polling shapes public perception, influences candidate strategies, and can create momentum or challenges for campaigns; can impact voter perceptions, affecting candidate viability and election outcomes

20. How is political participation influenced by the media?

    media coverage shapes political awareness, mobilizes voters, and influences voter behavior; increased media exposure often correlates with higher political participation

21. Explain the reasons behind the debates over media bias.

    debates over media bias come from perceived bias in reporting, influencing public opinion. bias may stem from individual perspectives, corporate interests, or political affiliations, leading to concerns about fairness, accuracy, and the media's impact on democratic discourse

22. How do the following impact the nature of democratic debate and the knowledge of citizens?

    1. Increased media choices: diverse media choices broaden perspectives but can contribute to information silos; citizens may self-select into echo chambers, limiting exposure to diverse viewpoints

    2. Ideologically orientated programming: reinforces existing beliefs, potentially polarizing public discourse; may contribute to the fragmentation of public opinion

    3. Consumer-driven media outlets: tailors content to specific audience preferences; may prioritize sensationalism over substance, impacting the quality of democratic debate

    4. Uncertain credibility of news sources and information: erodes trust and makes it challenging for citizens to discern reliable information; undermines the foundation of an informed citizenry, essential for a healthy democracy