government

coalition formation

• Belgium = parliamentary democracy

  • parliament (legislative branch) = only direct representative of the people

  • government (executive branch) = appointed by and accountable to parliament

    • vote of (no-)confidence

• Belgium = constitutional monarchy

  • king = head of state

  • limited powers

  • government (accountable to parliament) acts on his behalf … (at least in theory)

• Belgian world record for longest time without a government after elections

why so long, complex and unpredictable

• rational-choice models of coalition formation

  • predictable process

  • elections provide parties with bargaining power

  • parties make strategic choices

    • minimize costs, maximize benefits

  • → basic theoretical models: minimum winning coalition, minimum connected coalition…

    • → no surplus parties and oversized coalitions

• electoral context

  1. high party system fragmentation

     • a lot of parties = fragmentation of bargaining power and higher costs and fewer benefits

  2. split party system

     • last two-party coalition: 1960s

       • from then: at least 4 parties

     • party families score differently in north and south

  3. electoral volatility

     • increases the potential cost of ruling

     • most outgoing majority parties lose votes

     • some very heavily

  4. absence of a market leader

     • christian democrats (FL) and socialists (FR) have lost thair electoral dominance

     • no more constant factor in government

     • varying leading parties

  5. frequent elections (at different levels)

     • before 2014: often midterm elections

     • constant campaign mode

     • since 2014: coinciding elections

       but…

• formal and informal constraints further complicate negotiations

  1. coalitions need formal majority of votes in parliament

     • survive investiture vote (vote of confidence)

     • no minority cabinets

       • exception: government Wilmès

  2. frequent formal need for supermajorities

     • state reforms since 1970s

       • changing constitution: 2/3 seats

       • changing special majority laws: 2/3 + 50% seats in each language group

         = oversized coalition

  3. informal quest for parliamentary majority in each linguistic group

     • no formal requirement (but needed for many state reforms)

     • symbolic: broader electoral support and legitimacy

  4. informal habit: ideological sister parties stick together

     • together in government or in opposition

     • often leads to surplus parties (and oversized coalitions)

     • but: exceptions

  5. informal quest for symmetrical cabinets

     • federal + regional cabinets with same coalition parties

     • easier for policy-making(cooperative federalism)

     • less awkward party strategies and positions

  6. refusal to govern with ideological extremes

     • Flanders: cordon sanitaire against VB

       • not even engage in coalition talks

       • cultivated by VB (exclusion by established parties)

       • but 2019: party president invited by King and Flemish formateur

     • Wallonia: reluctance to govern with PTB-PVDA

       • less formalized, mostly expressed by centre-right

procedure at federal level

• federal formation follows classic pattern

  • role played by king: influence and autonomy limited though

  • several stages

  • important role party leaders: advise the king, main negotiators

• first monday after elections

  • outgoing PM goes to royal palace

    • offers resignation of cabinet to king

  • king accepts and starts consultation round

    • meetings with party presidents (not VB)

    • discuss electoral outcome and possibilities

  • king selects informateur: based on suggestions of party leaders, often future coalition partner

• information round

  • takes a few weeks

  • informateur: invites all party leaders (and leaders of major interest groups)

    • main demands for new government?

    • which parties are willing to proceed to concrete negotiations?

  • → mathematically and politically viable options?

  • writes and information report for the king

  • king selects formateur

    • no real choice: often obvious choice ofr future prime minister

• formation round

  • formateur organizes negotiations between future coalition partners

  • party leaders + top negotiators/party experts

  • negotiate about

    1. governmental policies (coalition agreement): longest and most difficult stage

    2. distribution of ministerial portfolios (between parties)

• what if (in)formateur fails?

  • back to the king

  • may select new informateur (alternative coalitions) or new formateur (new negotiations)

  • or more creativity: select new explorers, mediators or royal assignment holders

    • often very senior (bilingual) politicians

    • clear the minefield; win some time

    • pave the way for new (in)formateur

the content

• after negotiations on coalition (who joins?)

• longest phase of the formation

• outcome = coalition agreement

  • very long detailed documents in Belgium

• very important and consequential

  • determines the policy agenda for next term

  • binds coalition parties (prevent conflict)

  • negotiated by party presidents → power!

  • constraints room for MPs (party discipline)

distribution of portfolios

• after policy negotiations: distribution of ministerial portfolios

• Gamson’s law: proportionality (based on parliamentary seats)

• but:

  • smaller parties tend to be slightly overrepresented

  • not all portfolios are the same (budget, prestige, influence)

  • federal/Brussels: linguistic parity → some parties overrepresented

• federal government: 15 ministers + unlimited state secretaries

• distributed by system of points

• several steps

  • determine points per linguistic groups

  • determine points per party

  • party leaders pick portfolio, in order of size

• selection of who becomes minister = choice of party leader

• ministers not necessarily elected MPs

• each coalition party selects vice prime minister

  • leader of the party-in-government

  • follow general policies (besides own portfolios)

final formalities: once negotiations have finished:

1. party congress votes on government participation

   • discussion of coalition agreement

   • generally without difficulty

2. new cabinet takes oath in the Royal Palace

3. prime minister presents policy plans to Parliament and asks confidence (investiture vote)

procedure in the regions/communities

• very similar procedures

  • party leaders

  • extensive coalition agreements

  • division of portfolios with system of points

  • party congress + investiture vote

• but some differences

  • king not involved (only takes the oath of prime minister, other ministers → parliament)

  • largest party (leader) takes initiative

  • less complex:

    • lessparties

    • no linguistic barriers to bridge (except Brussels)

    • no need for 2/3 or majorities in both language groups

• Flemish government

  • community and region merged = one coalition agreement

• government of the Walloon region/Frnacophone community

  • generally same coalition parties

  • 2 separate coalition agreements

  • but overlap in ministers + portfolios (is allowed)

    1 minister of Brussels in Francophone community

• Brussels regional government

  • fixed language groups + ministerial parity

  • 2 steps process

    1. formation of coalition within each linguistic group

       • search for symmetry but not necessary

    2. 2 coalitions join to negotiate a common coalition agreement

  → approval by Brussles divisions of political parties (quite autonomous)

  • distribution of portfolios (both language groups 2 ministers, NL 1 secretary of state FR 2 and FR the PM)

functioning and coalition management

coalition management

• bringing together parties (formation) is difficult

• keeping them together is equally difficult

  • parties eventually face the electorate separately

  • might lead to conflicts

• therefore: control mechanisms

  • ex-ante control: coalition agreement

  • ex-post control: extremely collective and hierarchical decision-making

a contract-style coalition agreement

• bible or contract: filled with package deals

  • main purpose: provide governmental stability

  • prevent later surprises or different interpretations

• detailed list of concrete policies that will be implemented

  • by government (MPs are not supposed to interfere with these policies)

  • including timing and procedure

• equally important: what is not written in the agreement

  • informal habit: no new policies without consent of all coalition parties

  • no alternative majorities in parliament

extreme collective decision-making

• council of ministers

  • decide on general policies, bill proposals, ministerial executive orders, budget changes…

  • consensus decision-making

    • government never votes

    • principle of solidarity and collegiality: defend decisions or resign as minister

• preparation by ministerial cabinets

  • parsonal advisors of minister

  • very large in Belgium

    • staff recruited from parties and public administrations

  • headed by chef de cabinet

  • inter-cabinet working groups

    • frequent contacts with other chefs de cabinet

    • also among specialized advisors

  → prepare council of ministers

• the core cabinet

  • chaired by PM

  • one vice PM per coalition party

  • informal meeting but very important

  • discusses general policies, budgets, most important bills and difficult issues

• further coordination by political parties

  • government crisis → PM might decide to talk directly to party presidents

  • also within parties: weekly formal meetings

  • government in Belgium = party government

what about the regions/communities

• very similar functioning to federal government

• detailed coalition agreements

• collective decision-making

  • weekly council of ministers

  • extensive ministerial cabinets (advisors)

  • core decsion-making in core cabinet

  • coordination and follow-up within parties

role of the king

• central role during government formation (though limited influence)

• during government pariod: very modest role

  • PM briefs king about public affairs weekly

  • king co-signs acts of government and bills

  • head of state (symbolic, ceremonial tasks)

• ealier kings tried to have more influence, foreign affairs but also home affairs

• mini royal question:

  • king Baudouin refuses to give Royal Assent to bill that woumd depenalize abortion (he was too christian, advised government to find a loophole to pass the bill without the king) → king temporarily declared unable to reign for one day so government could sign the bill as head of state, king ‘able to reign’ next day again

government termination

resignation entire government

• parliamentary democracy: government will resign when it loses the confidence/support of a parliamentary majority

  • doesn’t happen in practice

  • regions/communities: fixed term parliaments → constructive motion of no-confidence

• government resignation = party bussiness

  • often result of conflct and disagreement among coalition parties

  • PM offers resignation to King → current affairs and new parliamentary elections

resignation of minister

• again aprty bussiness

• not decided by PM

• but by party president

• ministers may decide to resign when he/she feels that it has become impossible to function normally

  • political errors/mistakes

  • personal/ideological disagreements

caretaker cabinets and current affairs

after resignation

• when: after resignation because of crisis or simply after new elections

• government loses full competences: only finish current affairs, no new initiatives (unless very urgent)

• parliament still has full competences: mor elegislative autonomy, approval of temporary budgets