🦅 APUSH Unit 7 Notes

1898-1945

 

 

 

The last topic of each unit are just reviews so there are no note for them. These notes contain information from class and from Heimler’s History Videos.

7.1 - The West

Federal Government's Role

  • Actively promoted economic development and movement West.

  • Homestead Act (1862): Offered up to 160 acres of public land to anyone who improved it for 5 years.

  • Difficulties: poor land quality, high cost of supplies, extreme weather, fraud, fluctuating crop prices.

  • Pacific Railroad Act (1862): Authorized building of the Transcontinental Railroad with federal subsidies.

  • Completed in 1869, transformed life in the West.

 Economic Developments

  • Boom and bust cycle, particularly in the mining industry.

  • Mining booms include the California Gold Rush, Pikes Peak in Colorado (1858), and the Comstock Lode in Nevada (1859).

  • Tough conditions, high foreign-born population, environmental damage from hydraulic mining.

  • Cattle industry influenced by Spanish/Mexican cowboys; involved driving cattle to railroad centers like Dodge City.

  • Faced challenges such as bad weather, overgrazing, and conflicts with farmers.

The Myth and the Reality

  • Myth: romanticized view of the West in literature, paintings, dime novels.

  • Reality: Difficult, lonely life, diverse population including many Chinese immigrants and groups of various origins.

  • Nativism: Rise in nativism

    • Immigration Restriction league

    • Chinese Exclusion Act

    • Tape Vs. Hurley was a court case stating that you couldn’t exclude minorities from public school based on their race

  • Religion: Mormon settlement in Utah, women's suffrage was more common (e.g., Wyoming).

 Indigenous Affairs

  • Plains Indians relied heavily on hunting bison.

  • Introduction of horses, firearms, alcohol, and diseases impacted their lives.

  • Expansion west led to conflicts and decrease in bison population.

  • Indian Wars: Violence between settlers and Native Americans.

  • Sand Creek Massacre (1864): Over 100 Native people killed by Colorado militia.

  • Battle of Little Bighorn (1876): Sioux victory over Custer, short-lived.

  • Wounded Knee Massacre (1890): Over 200 Sioux killed in Ghost Dance movement suppression.

  • Assimilation policies:

    • Dawes Act (1887): Divided reservations into allotments; sold "remaining" land; largely a failure.

 Changing Frontiers

  • Homesteads declining by 1890s: People moving to cities.

  • Frederick Jackson Turner: The frontier has closed; significance in shaping American identity.

  • New frontiers: Overseas expansion (e.g., Cuba, Philippines).

 Agrarian Discontent

  • Farming more commercialized; specialized in cash crops.

  • Problems included falling prices, unfair railroad practices, high machinery costs, tight money supply, and high tariffs.

  • Responses:

  • Grange Movement: Organized social/educational activities; later lobbied for regulatory reforms.

  • Farmers Alliance: Founded in Texas 1870s; led to split over excluding certain groups.

  • Populist Party: Pushed for government ownership of railroads, coinage of silver, graduated income tax, political reforms, etc.

    • James Weaver was a presidential candidate for the populists

 Racism

  • Redeemers were white supremacist democrats, often agreed with the New South

  • New South was the idea that the south, after the civil war, should industrialize

  • Kansas Exodus many African-Americans fled to Kansas in hopes of less racist persecution

  • Lynching was a way of killing African-Americans illegally

  • Tactics used to disenfranchise African-Americans

    • Poll Tax

    • Literacy Test

    • Grandfather Clause

 Turmoil at the Turn of the Century

  • Homestead Strike (1892): Workers at Carnegie's steel plant defeated.

  • Panic of 1893: Over speculation led to market crash; President Cleveland's laissez-faire approach criticized.

  • Coxey's Army (1894): Marched to D.C. demanding public works jobs.

  • Pullman Strike (1894): Government intervened on behalf of business.

  • Eugene V Debs was a representative in the socialist party. Ran for president but never got it.

  • Election of 1896:

    • William Jennings Bryan: Cross of Gold speech, (free silver) supported by Democrats and endorsed Populist ideas.

    • William McKinley (Republican) wins; decline of Populist party.

 

 

7.2 - Imperial Expansion

Imperial Ambitions

  • Imperialism: Expansion of a country's political, economic, military influence over another

  • Common perception: "America is not an empire" is challenged

  • First imperialist expansion: Gasden Purchase (1867):

    • Purchased under Secretary of State William Seward for $7.2 million

    • Initially called "Seward's Folly" and seen as valueless

    • Value realized in 1898 with the discovery of gold

 Reasons for Imperialism

  • Strategic/Military: Presence of naval bases globally, and the need for a powerful Navy, leading to projects like the Panama Canal.

  • Ideological: Ideas such as Social Darwinism and the "white man's burden" justified colonizing lands to spread "superior" Anglo-Saxon civilization.

  • Economic: Desire to open markets for industrial and agricultural goods and access to cheap raw materials. Increase in US exports each decade.

  • Political: Competing with European nations and Japan, America's ambition to avoid being a second-rate nation, participating in global affairs.

 Mindsets on Expansion

  • Expansion viewed as inherently American due to westward expansion

  • The closing of the frontier led to looking abroad for land

  • The debate: Imperialists vs. Anti-imperialists

 The Imperialist Perspective

  • Economic Motives

    • Alaska's gold as a precedent for seeking resources elsewhere

    • Desire for new markets for American-made goods

  • Belief in economic and political "survival of the fittest" (European nations as examples of successful empires)

    • American should show itself as the fittest

  • Racial motivations:

    • Reverend Josiah Strong's book promoting Anglo-Saxon expansion as a Christian duty

    • Use of Social Darwinism to justify expansion

  • Influence of Alfred Thayer Mahan's naval theory:

    • Importance of a strong navy for securing foreign markets

    • Congressional approval for a new fleet and securing strategic territories due to Mahan’s writing

  • The New Empire by Brooks Adams predicted America would be a world power.

 The Anti-Imperialist Perspective

  • Formed the Anti-Imperialist League

  • Principle of Self-Determination:

    • Nations should decide their own rulers and laws

    • Similar to America's colonial argument against British rule

  • Long history of Isolationism:

    • Warnings against foreign entanglements (e.g., George Washington's farewell speech)

    • Fear of being dragged into wars unnecessarily

  • Racial arguments and constitutional concerns:

    • The debate of whether the Constitutional rights apply to new territories ("Does the Constitution follow the flag?")

    • Concern over granting citizenship and rights to people from annexed territories 📜

 Big Stick Diplomacy

  • Known for "speak softly and carry a big stick" policy, combining diplomacy with military force.

  • Panama Canal: Negotiated canal rights after supporting Panama's independence from Colombia.

  • Roosevelt Corollary: Declared the US right to intervene in Latin American affairs, expanding Monroe Doctrine's scope.

  • US involvement in East Asia: Negotiated peace in the Russo-Japanese War, achieving the Gentleman's Agreement with Japan and sending the Great White Fleet to demonstrate naval power.

 America's Rise on the Global Stage

  • The expansionist foreign policies of McKinley and Roosevelt marked the active role of the US in world affairs and set the stage for further growth 

 

 

 

7.3 - Spanish-American War

Inciting the Conflict (Spanish-American War)

  • American empire builders, including industrialists and politicians, wanted Cuba, a Spanish colony

  • Cuban nationalists began a fervent struggle against Spain in 1895 but ultimately faced defeat (before American intervention)

 Media Influence and Entry

  • A battle for readership between Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearstleads to heightened yellow journalism (The Yellow Papers) 

  • Yellow papers were exaggerated “clickbait”

  • Media outlets played up Spanish atrocities in Cuba, sparking U.S. public opinion to sway towards intervention

  • The exact influence of yellow journalism remains debatable, but it's commonly acknowledged to have played a role 

 Catalysts for the War

  • The United States flexed military muscle with a naval presence in Cuban waters

  • The explosion of the U.S.S. Maine in Havana Harbor killed over 200 Americans, igniting war fervor

    • Despite a lack of evidence, Spain was blamed for the incident due to imperialist Yellow Papers; subsequent investigations showed it was an accidental cause

  • President McKinley's ultimatum to Spain concluded in a formal declaration of war, despite Spain having accepted the demands

  • Jingoism is a term for extreme patriotism with war-like foreign policies. Many advocated for the Spanish-American War were Jingoists.

 A Splendid Little War

  • The Teller Amendment stated that America was dedicated to the war, but would leave Cuba alone and not control it after the war.

  • War: Lasted 4 months, known as "splendid little war". Battle of San Juan Hill was a significant victory.

  • Outcomes: Treaty of Paris (1898) gives US control over Guam, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines—sparking debate over imperialism.

  • Anti-Imperialist League opposed annexation.

  • Shifts in US policy concerning new territories, including the Platt Amendment, limited sovereignty for Cuba and Puerto Rico.

 War Outcomes and Repercussions

  • A swift American victory underscored the Spanish-American War 

  • The significance of the war was found in its consequential effects on future American policy and action

  • Cuba: With the Platt Amendment, could not sign treaties limiting independence, and the US could intervene and maintain Guantanamo Bay.

  • Puerto Rico: Granted limited self-rule, US citizenship conferred in 1917 with the Foraker Act

  • Philippines: Fought a brutal guerrilla war for independence, eventually gained in 1946

 Struggle for Cuban Independence

  • Cuba secured independence yet found itself tethered by the restrictive Platt Amendment 

  • This amendment hindered Cuban sovereignty and justified U.S. intervention to protect American investments

 Dominion Over the Philippines

  • Under the orders of Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, the U.S. Navy vanquished the Spanish fleet in the Philippines

  • After a $20 million transaction, the Philippines were ceded to the United States

  • Filipinos thought they would be free, but American disagreed.

  • Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, Filipinos revolted, but U.S. win and controlled the Philippines until the post-World War II era

    • Water curing was a method of torture used by the Americans against the Philippinos.

 Expansion in the Pacific

  • Hawaii and other territories fell under U.S. annexation, reinforcing American imperial ambitions 

  • The grab for Hawaii in 1898 dovetailed with the capture of the Philippines, signaling a strategic broadening of American reach

  • Hawaiian natives and their queen did not want to be annexed, but knew they would lose a war, so they were forced to accept the annexation.

  • Hawaiian Queen Liliuokalani favored local rule, but was overthrown by plantation owners in the 1890s.

  • Hawaii was annexed under President McKinley in 1898.

 Economic Expansion and Policy

  • The Open Door Policy in China signified America's pursuit of global economic opportunities

  • Secretary of State John Hay discouraged European monopolization by advocating for U.S. trading rights in China through the Open Door Note

  • This policy ensured America maintained a competitive position in Asian markets despite the continent's division into European spheres of influence

  • Boxer Rebellion (1890s) was a nationalist uprising against foreign influence, suppressed by international forces including the US.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7.4 - The Dawn of Progressivism

 Driving Forces

  • The progressives wanted change in industrialization, urbanization, and immigration

  • Purpose: Utilize government power to regulate and improve societal conditions.

  • Rejection of Laissez-Faire: Progressives rejected the non-interventionist government ideology predominant during the Gilded Age.

  • Moderate Nature: Movement was not radical; it sought to improve capitalism rather than overthrow it.

  • Angel Island was the point of entry into America for many Chinese immigrants

  • Ellis Island was the entry point for many immigrants

 Progressive Demographics

  • Demographics: Many were middle-class men and women, but the movement was diverse.

  • Lack of Cohesion: Not an organized movement with common goals; included various groups with different agenda

 The Faces of Reform: Progressives

  • Progressives were a diverse group with varying opinions on different issues.

  • Common concerns included:

    • Growing power of big business

    • Economic uncertainties, especially post-Panic of 1893

    • Violent conflicts between labor and employers

    • Control of urban residents by political machines

    • Jim Crow laws in the South

    • Women's suffrage

    • Alcohol-related problems

  • Progressives' collective belief: societal deterioration could only be cured through significant government intervention.

 Muckrakers

  • Muckrakers were Investigative journalists who exposed American corruption.

  • Teddy Roosevelt named them muckrakers, originally a derogative term.

  • Notable works from muckrakers:

    • Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle": revealed the horrors of the meatpacking industry.

    • Ida Tarbell: exposed corruption in Standard Oil company.

    • Jacob Riis's "How the Other Half Lives" displayed the poor living conditions in New York tenements.

  • Their aim was to influence changes by shedding light on societal corruption.

 Progressive Political Reforms

  • Expansion of Democracy: Included various methods:

    • Secret ballot: Introduction to prevent voting manipulation by political bosses. (Bosses couldn’t confirm that people were actually voting for them)

    • Direct election of senators facilitated by the adoption of the 17th Amendment in 1913, transferring election responsibility from state legislatures to the people.

  • Progressive Constitutional Amendments:

    • 16th Amendment: Created an income tax that was used for reforms and regulation. It was a source of revenue for the federal government.

    • 17th Amendment: Transferred senator election responsibility from state legislatures to the people

    • 18th Amendment: Established American Prohibition, under influence from women's groups. Later repealed

    • 19th Amendment: Granted women the right to vote in 1920.

 Feminist and Workplace Progress

  • Women increasingly participated in public spheres, breaking away from the idea of separate spheres (home vs. public life).

  • Involvement in Reform Causes:

    • National Child Labor Committee: Advocated for child labor laws.

    • National Consumers League: Focused on women workers' rights and consumer protection.

  • Muller v. Oregon (1908) - justified 10-hour work days for women, citing their need for special protection.

  • Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (1911): Tragic event that led to reforms in workplace safety standards.

  • Fordism, the standard unskilled worker manufacturing style with conveyer belts, was created by the Ford company.

  • Collective bargaining gave workers strength they didn’t have alone

  • Industrial Workers of the World was a new worker union

 Women and the Progressive Wave

  • New Feminism, also know as the first wave of feminism, emerged.

    • Birth control and sex education was important for them, as getting pregnant could get you fired. Also, many young, poor women wouldn’t be able to afford babies.

  • Women played an active role but often lacked support from reformers

  • Woodrow Wilson initially unsupportive of women's suffrage amendment

  • Mary Elizabeth Lease was a feminist for women’s suffrage

  • Mother Jones was a labor organizer and activist.

  • National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA):

    • Led by Carrie Chapman Catt, preferred a state-by-state strategy

  • National Woman's Party (1916):

    • Formed by Alice Paul, more militant, advocated for a national amendment

  • The 19th Amendment passed, granting women the right to vote

 Moral Reform Waves

  • Temperance Movement

    • Division between 'wets' (against prohibition) and 'drys' (for prohibition)

  • Organizations

  • Women's Christian Temperance Union

  • Anti-Saloon League

 Roosevelt's Blueprint

  • Labor Policy: Intervention during the coal miners' strike of 1902 showcases a more labor-friendly approach.

  • Square Deal Program: Included the three C's - Control of corporations, Consumer protection, Conservation.

 Legislative Measures for the People

  • Progressives fought for reforms to enhance democracy further:

    • Initiative: Allowed voters to bring legislation directly.

    • Referendum: Enabled direct vote on proposed laws.

    • Recall: Provided a way to remove corrupt politicians before their term's end.

  • Some Progressives wanted to make the government more efficient

    • Fredrick Taylor published his theory of Scientific Management, which was a way to make factory work more efficient by timing every person very closely and telling management.

      • Some thought this could applied to government   

 Combating Racial Inequities

  • Black Progressives worked toward social justice amidst legalized racial segregation.

  • Niagara Movement: Led by W.E.B. DuBois focusing on civil rights.

  • NAACP: Aimed to abolish segregation and expand educational opportunities.

  • Fight against racial injustice was largely a separate effort from the broader Progressive movement.

 Presidential Push for Reform

  • Progressivist presidents brought reforms to the national focus.

  • Teddy Roosevelt:

    • Introduced the Square Deal aiming for a fair approach to domestic issues.

      • Coal miners were on strike, and Teddy invited both the big business and the miners and made it clear he took neither side, working to make it fair for both sides.

    • Took on the role of trust buster, enforcing the Sherman Antitrust Act.

    • Enacted consumer protection laws:

      • Pure Food and Drug Act

      • Meat Inspection Act

    • Advocated for conservation, using the Forest Reserve Act to protect natural resources.

      • John Muir

      • Gifford Pinchot

 Taft's Legacy

  • Follow-up to Roosevelt

  • Continued trust-busting and conservation efforts.

  • Dollar Diplomacy: Advocated for American business investment in foreign countries for stability and to promote US interests.

  • Know for the Ballinger-Pinchot scandal

The Split in the Republican Party

  • Division occurred during Taft's presidency

  • Split between supporters of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft

 Causes of the Republican Split

  • Paine-Aldrich Tariff (1909)

    • Raised tariff rates

    • Unpopular with progressive Republicans

  • Pinchot-Ballinger Controversy:

    • Roosevelt's ally, Gifford Pinchot (Chief of Forest Service), fired for criticizing Secretary of the Interior Ballinger

    • Ballinger accused of opening public lands in Alaska for private development

 The 1912 Presidential Election

  • Taft wins Republican nomination

  • Roosevelt forms the Progressive Party (Bull Moose Party)

  • New Nationalism program supporting federal government reforms

  • Democrats nominate Woodrow Wilson

  • New Freedom platform: tariff reform, bank reform, antitrust laws

  • Socialist Party runs Eugene Debs

  • Represents growing frustration over slow pace of reforms

 Wilson's Crusade Against Privilege

  • Aimed to tackle the "triple wall of privilege": tariffs, trusts, banks

 Society

  • Nickelodeons - A theatre, one of the many types of leisure culture that emerged.

  • American Standard of Living improved

  • Louis D. Brandeis was a Supreme Court judge who crated the right to privacy

  • Robert La Folette came up with the idea of direction election of senators, aka the 17th amendment.

 Wilson's Reforms at a Glance

  • Underwood Tariff (1913):

    • Significant tariff reduction (first in 50 years)

  • Federal Trade Commission (1914):

    • Investigates monopolies, exempts labor unions

  • Clayton Antitrust Act (1914):

    • Strengthens regulations on monopolies from the Sherman Antitrust Act

  • Banking Reform: Federal Reserve Act:

    • Federal Reserve regulates money supply

  • Response to economic panics and inflexibility of the gold standard

  • Adamson Act

    • Eight hour workday

 Additional Progressive Achievement

  • Federal Farm Loan Act (1916)

    • Low-rate loans for farmers

  • Child Labor Act (Keating-Owen Act)

    • Prohibits interstate commerce of products made by children

 Social Justice in the Progressive Spotlight

  • Progressive movement largely ignored African American civil rights

  • Little protest against lynching and Jim Crow laws (Plessy vs. Ferguson, 1896)

 Champions for African American Rights

  • Booker T. Washington:

    • Advocated for vocational skills and economic independence

    • Founded Tuskegee Institute

  • W.E.B. Du Bois:

    • Urged immediate political and social equality

    • Key figure in the Niagara Movement and the founding of the NAACP

  • Ida B. Wells:

    • Vocal advocate against lynching and for women's suffrage

 Diplomatic Principles

  • Wilson

    • Promote democracy, pursue less imperialistic policies

    • Improved relations with nations like the Philippines and Panama

    • However, intervention in Mexico showed limits of "moral diplomacy" (US backed Victoriano Huerta assassinating Madero, who over threw the dictator government)

    • Backed Mexican leader Venusitano Carranza

    • Chased Pancho Villa

  • Roosevelt

    • Mediated the Russo-Japanese war, received Nobel peace prize

    • Speak softly and carry a big stick

    • Panama Canal

    • Roosevelt Corollary

 

 

 

7.5 - World War One

The Spark of Conflict

  • Erupted in Europe in July 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

  • Causes (MAIN)

    • Militarism

    • Alliances

    • Imperialism

    • Nationalism

  • Two opposing coalitions formed

  • Triple Entente (Allied Powers): Britain, Russia, France

  • Triple Alliance (Central Powers): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

 US Neutrality

  • The U.S. initially maintained a stance of neutrality.

  • Events challenging U.S. neutrality:

    • The sinking of The Lusitania by Germany in 1915 led to American deaths and public outrage. Germany did apologize and promised to stop with the Sussex Pledge, which they broke.

    • Continued German submarine warfare risked breaking diplomatic relations. They wanted to win before America would get involved.

    • The interception of the Zimmermann Telegram revealed Germany's intention to involve Mexico in conflict with the U.S.

  • Wilson ran in the 1916 election on the fact that he kept America out of the war.

  • Wilson called for “peace without victory,” a world order including freedom of the seas, restrictions of armaments, and self determination.

    • Ran against Republican Charles Evan, reunited after the split.

 Entering The War

  • April 2, 1917: U.S. declared war against Germany.

  • President Woodrow Wilson claimed that the war was to "make the world safe for democracy".

  • Wilson thought this was “The War to end all Wars”

 On the Front Lines

  • The Selective Service Act created the draft.

  • American Expeditionary Forces commanded by John J. Pershing:

    • Initially supported French and British forces.

    • Soon took over portions of the western front.

  • The entry of the U.S. tipped the scale in favor of the Allies, despite joining late

  • War was funded by war/liberty bond

 Peace and its Price

  • Ended on November 11, 1918, with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

  • Britain and France wanted to punish Germany

  • Wilson's involvement and health decline during negotiations:

    • Advocated for a stable Europe without harsh penalties for Germany.

    • Presented the Fourteen Points, stressing democracy and proposing a League of Nations.

      • Forced to concede to British and French demands for German reparations.

      • Military reductions

      • No more secret treatments or colonies

      • Eliminate economic trade barriers

  • Wilson died of illness and the US never signed the treaty, Britain and France punished Germany

  • League of Nations established, but the U.S. Congress refused to ratify the treaty including it. (Mostly due to reservationist Henry Cabot Lodge who didn’t want the league to overpower the congress’s power to declare war/not declare war)

 

 

 

 

 

7.6 - World War One at Home

Mobilizing a Nation for War

  • Reviewing the homefront during America's involvement in World War I (WWI).

  • Incomes taxes increased during the war

  • The total war effort mobilized economic, industrial, and social resources.

    • Total War: Full mobilization of resources to win the war, both on the battlefield and at home.

  • President Wilson created wartime agencies for efficient resource management.

 Agencies at the War's Behest

  • War Industries Board: Coordinated labor and management for war materials production.

  • Nation War Labor Board: Mediated labor disputes and prevented strikes.

  • Food Administration: Ensured sufficient food production for troops and civilians.

 Urban Shift and Workforce Dynamics

  • Shift from rural to urban areas as people sought work in industrial centers.

  • The Great Migration is an example of this

 Liberties at Stake

  • Opposition to U.S. involvement led to restrictions on civil liberties.

  • Espionage Act (1917) and Sedition Act (1918): Made it a crime to oppose the war or interfere with the draft.

  • Eugene V. Debs, a socialist, was put in jail for violating these acts. He ran for president while in jail.

  • Schenck v. United States upheld restrictions on free speech by declaring it a crime if speech presents a "clear and present danger."

  • Industrial Workers of the World claimed the war was a crime against the people of the United States.

 Pandemic and Propaganda

  • Committee on Public Information (CPI)

    • Run by George Creel and promoted propaganda and shaped public opinion

  • Four-Minute Men were dispatched by the CPI to multiple the people and promote the CPI

  • Government restricted publications revealing the true impact of the Spanish Flu.

    • An effort to maintain morale despite the high death toll from the virus.

  • Propaganda let to anti-communist sentiments (Red Scare)

    • Post-war era saw a rise in anti-communist sentiment after the successful Russian Revolution.

    • Led to xenophobia and restrictive immigration policies.

 Pursuit of the Communists

  • Palmer Raids: Attorney General Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover conducted secret information gathering on suspected radicals for communism or socialism.

    • Resulted in mass arrests and deportations.

    • Not always accurate or just, often discriminated against immigrants

 Nativism

  • Peak immigration before WWI caused nativist backlash.

  • Emergency Quota Act (1921) and National Origins Act (1924): Set low quotas for immigrants, particularly from southern and eastern Europe and Asia.

  • Anti-German crusades spiked, with states restricting foreign languages and German music being banned.

 The Great Migration and Racial Tensions

  • Great Migration: African Americans moved from the South to industrial centers in the North to escape Jim Crow laws and disenfranchisement.

    • Sought jobs but still faced discrimination in the North.

  • Significant race riots occurred; e.g., the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921.

    • The Tulsa Riot occurred when a white women claimed a black shoe shiner assaulted her, leading white men fighting black men. 300 blacks were killed

  • The KKK grew significantly, to 5% of the nation

  • The Birth of a Nation movie glorified the KKK

  • W.E.B. Dubois wrote Souls of Black Folk, arguing against Booker T. Washington’s gradualism

  • The “Talented Ten” were a group of educated blacks

  • The Niagara Movement grew

  • National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) fought for racial justice.

  • Cultural pluralism, the celebration and acceptance of ethnic identities among other cultures, spread

 Foreign Relationships and Puerto Rico

  • Puerto Ricans had American citizenship but no vote in politics. They were also drafted.

  • Japan and American tensions were high

  • A gentlemen’s agreement to place where Japan ended migration to America except for wives and children of those already in America

  • California barred Asians for owning/leasing land

  • The president would push back against these anti-Asian policies.

 

 

 

 

 

7.7 - Technology

The Automotive Transformation

  • Henry Ford and the Automobile Industry:

    • Mass production of the Model T.

    • Introduction of the assembly line in 1913 which increased manufacturing efficiency.

    • Allowed unskilled workers to replace skilled workers due to repetitive tasks.

 The Revolution of Efficiency

  • Impact of the Assembly Line:

    • Prices of products, including cars, were driven down significantly.

    • The manufacturing process influenced various sectors beyond automobiles.

  • The Great Steel Strike was a strike of 365,000 mostly-immigrant workers, and the steel magnates launched a counterattack, using propaganda until the middle class turned against “communism’ strikes and unions.

 The Productivity Playbook

  • Frederick Taylor's (Scientific management) Influence:

    • Implemented time studies to increase worker efficiency.

    • Helped to refine the assembly line process by reducing time for individual tasks.

 Automobiles: A Shift in Society

  • Automobile Accessibility:

    • With the entry of affordable cars, there was a high demand by Americans.

    • By the end of the 1920s, Americans owned 80% of the world's cars.

  • Effect on Urban and Suburban Life:

    • Increased individual mobility led to the growth of suburbs.

    • Cities like Los Angeles and Houston were redesigned with a focus on road infrastructure.

 The Rise of Consumerism

  • Expansion of Consumer Goods:

    • The same mass production techniques extended to other consumer products like toasters, radios, and appliances.

  • Rise in the standard of living for many Americans during the decade.

  • The surge in consumerism also boosted the advertising industry.

 Prohibition

  • Reasons in support

    • Employers wanted more disciplined labor

    • More orderly cities

    • Women wanted DV to stop

    • Protestantism

    • Beer was German-American, so “unamerican”

  • Reasons against

    • Taxes on alcohol were 40% of the governments income

    • Crime increased

    • Political corruption increased

 Advertising’s New Age

  • Adoption of Psychological Techniques in Advertising:

    • Influence of Sigmund Freud's studies on human psychology.

    • Advertisements began to appeal to emotions and self-identity.

 Radio and Cinema

  • Role of Communications Technologies:

  • Spread of radio: By 1923, there were nearly 600 radio stations broadcasting news and entertainment.

    • Example: The Amos n' Andy Show exemplified entertainment derived from past minstrel shows.

  • Rise of Cinema:

    • The growth of movie-going: Weekly attendance by nearly three-quarters of Americans.

    • Significance of "The Jazz Singer":

      •  Introduced synchronized sound, ending the silent film era.

 America’s Cultural Mosaic

  • Media and Homogenized Culture:

    • National culture disseminated through movies and radio inadvertently highlighted racial, ethnic, and regional differences.

    • Lack of representation or misrepresentation of black experiences created a sense of distinct cultural identity, leading to movements like the Harlem Renaissance.

    • Rural populations recognized their distinct way of life compared to the urban lifestyles shown in the media.

 

7.8 - Culture

The Emergence of Urban America

  • The 1920s marked a significant shift from new manufacturing and communication technologies to societal changes.

  • The period was characterized by increasing urbanization and its significant impact on women, immigrants, and internal migrants.

  • Harding beat Coolidge and Hoover (all republicans) in the election of 1920

    • Harding implemented the McCumber Tariff.

    • Coolidge became President after Harding died during his corrupt presidency

 The Metropolitan Melting Pot

  • By 1920, more than half of Americans lived in cities.

  • Urbanization created new opportunities for various societal groups, redefining traditional roles.

 Breaking Barriers for Women

  • Traditional middle-class expectations for women centered around childbearing and homemaking.

  • Urban women experienced:

    • Enhanced workforce opportunities, especially in nursing and teaching.

    • Engagement in unskilled labor in factories, albeit with lower wages than men for equivalent work.

    • Cultural shifts and symbols of liberation emerged:

  • Flappers: women who defied social norms by cutting their hair short, smoking, drinking, and wearing more liberal fashion.

  • Jeanette Rankin and Alice Paul argued for the 19th amendment

 Waves of Immigration and Nativist Responses

  • The post-World War I era saw a surge of immigrants from southern/eastern Europe and Asia.

  • A rise in nativism, promoting the protection of native-born citizens' rights over those of immigrants.

    • Prevailing fears included job competition and racial purity concerns.

  • Legislative response:

    • Emergency Quota Act of 1921: Capped immigration at 3% based on the 1910 census figures.

    • National Origins Act of 1924: Further intensified immigration restrictions.

 The Great Migration Northward 🌟

  • This period saw the continuation of the Exodusters movement.

    • The Southern black population migrated to the North and Midwest, particularly to places like Harlem in New York.

  • Harlem Renaissance:

    • A cultural revival in arts and intellectual pursuit within the black community.

    • Celebrated figures include Jazz musicians Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, and writers Langston Hughes and Claude McKay. Zora Neale Hurtsingson was also a part of the Harlem Renaissance.

    • They were the “new n—o” as they rejected Jim Crow laws and celebrated their culture and art.

 Disenchanted Voices of the Era

  • The Lost Generation, a term coined by Gertrude Stein, referred to a group of disillusioned 1920s writers.

    • F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway were among the notables voicing concerns over materialism in American culture and the wastes of World War I.

 The Social Schism: Urban vs Rural 🌾

  • Urban Protestants ("Modernists"): Adapted their views to embrace the evolving culture and scientific advancements such as evolution.

  • Rural Protestants ("Fundamentalists"): Fought to uphold traditional morals, interpreting the Bible in a more serious, yet not always literal, manner, to counter what they saw as moral decay.

 The Scopes Monkey Trial 🐒

  • In 1925, a Tennessee law banning the teaching of Darwin's evolutionary theory led to the dramatic Scopes Monkey Trial.

  • Teacher John Scopes was arrested for teaching evolution, challenging the law.

  • Noteworthy moments in the trial involved:

    • Defense lawyer Clarence Darrow

    • Prosecutor William Jennings Bryan, who struggled to defend fundamentalism under Darrow's rigorous questioning.

  • The trial ended with:

    • Scopes' conviction, which was later overturned due to a technicality.

    • A view of the trial as a symbolic victory for modernism over fundamentalism.

 

 

 

7.9 and 7.10 - The Great Depression

The Cataclysm of 1929

  • Known as Black Tuesday, which occurred on October 29, 1929.

  • The crash wasn't an overnight event but a process culminating on this date.

  • The year earlier, Hoover was elected and benefited from anti-Catholic ideals.

 Underlying Factors of Economic Collapse

  • Farmers' Overproduction

    • Overproduction led to severe debt among farmers.

    • When paired with high tariffs, this created an economic crisis.

  • Hawley-Smoot Tariff

    • Implemented in 1930 by President Herbert Hoover.

    • Led to reduced global market sales due to high taxes on imports.

  • Stock Market Speculation

    • Driven by risky investments and buying on margin (borrowing money to buy stocks).

    • The assumption that stock prices would always rise led to widespread borrowing, which turned into overwhelming debt once the market crashed.

Unfolding of the Great Depression

  • Triggered by the stock market crash.

  • Resulted in widespread poverty and homelessness.

  • Foreclosures increased.

  • Shantytowns called "Hoovervilles" emerged, named critically after President Hoover's economic policies.

 The 1932 Presidential Showdown

  • Republican incumbent Herbert Hoover vs. Democratic challenger Franklin D. Roosevelt.

  • Roosevelt won by campaigning on active government intervention.

  • Roosevelt expanded the federal government's size and scope significantly.

 FDR's Bold Experiment: The New Deal

  • Roosevelt introduced the New Deal to provide:

    • Relief: for the unemployed.

    • Recovery: for businesses.

    • Reform: of economic institutions.

 Groundbreaking New Deal Initiatives

  • Relief

    • Public Works Administration (PWA): Infrastructure projects.

    • Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): Electric power plants, flood control, and erosion management.

    • Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): Soil conservation and forestry projects.

  • Recovery

    • National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA): Minimum wage, shorter hours, and fair competition codes.

  • Reform

    • Glass-Steagall Act of 1933: Banking regulation including FDIC insure deposits.

    • Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): Regulate stock market to prevent unfair practices.

    • Social Security Act of 1935: Established an income safety net for retired workers.

 Critiques and Challenges

  • Criticism from both liberals (not liberal enough) and conservatives (too much federal intervention).

  • Roosevelt's proposed judicial reorganization ("court packing scheme") was opposed by Congress, viewed as a potential abuse of power.

 Enduring Impact of the New Deal

  • Institutionalized reforms and regulatory agencies.

  • Aligned Black people, working-class folks, and ethnic minorities with the Democratic Party.

 The Descent into Economic Turmoil

  • Stock Market Crash and Economic Collapse

  • The October 1929 stock market crash triggered an economic collapse in both the US and abroad, leading to massive unemployment and bank failures.

 Factors Behind the Financial Abyss

  • Underlying Factors

  • Factors contributing to the Great Depression included overproduction, uneven wealth distribution, over reliance on credit, and international economic issues.

 A President's Contested Actions

  • Hoover's Response

  • President Hoover initially espoused rugged individualism and opposed government intervention but later passed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930, which worsened economic problems.

 The Bonus Army's Clash with Hoover

  • The Bonus Army

    • The Bonus Army, composed of World War I veterans, marched to Washington demanding immediate bonus payments, reflecting negatively on President Hoover's image due to his aggressive handling of the situation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

7.11 - Entering the War

The Isolationist Stance

  • After World War I, American foreign policy shifted towards isolationism, indicating a reluctance to engage in European affairs.

    • The America First Campaign was against going Into WW2

  • President Warren G. Harding’s campaign promise of a “return to normalcy” echoed this sentiment, emphasizing the need for healing and restoration, avoiding

  • international entanglements. 

Policies of Disengagement

  • Tariffs: Implementation of the Fordney-McCumber Act in 1922 and the Smoot-Hawley Tariff in 1930 raised tariffs significantly to decrease international trade, promoting domestic goods consumption.

  • Kellogg-Briand Pact: A pact signed among 63 nations, including the U.S., aimed to renounce war in principle but lacked enforceability, reflecting the desire to steer clear of international conflicts.

 Rise of Global Aggressors

  • The rise of fascist and totalitarian governments in Europe, spearheaded by Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany, and Japan's militaristic authoritarianism, raised concerns among Americans.

    • Power was completely in the hands of the leader/state

    • States militarize and expand their borders

  • Aggressive actions by these governments, such as territorial occupations, troubled Americans but did not prompt involvement due to isolationist tendencies.

  • Due to neutrality, America did not intervene when Spain had a civil war and was replaced with a fascist government.

 Debating Neutrality vs Engagement

  • Despite the inclination towards neutrality, mounting concerns and the threat posed by aggressive governments necessitated a shift in U.S. foreign policy.

  • The Nye commission blamed US involvement in WW1 on companies, so this led to more isolationism

  • The neutrality acts were passed

  • Debates between isolationists and interventionists regarding the effectiveness of isolationism in the modern age, considering advancements in warfare technology and the potential threat to American shores.

 Roosevelt's Delicate Balancing Act

  • President Franklin D. Roosevelt adopted an 'intervening isolationist' stance, sympathizing with Britain's cause but lacking widespread public support for direct involvement in the war.

  • Roosevelt was the first to recognize the soviet union

  • Roosevelt maneuvered gradual aid to the Allies, including the Cash and Carry program, Destroyers for Bases deal, and the Lend-Lease Act, effectively supporting Britain and the Allied Powers.

  • Roosevelt believed in the four freedoms and wanted to spread them around the world

    • Freedom of religion

    • Freedom of speech

    • Freedom from want

    • Freedom from fear

 The Tipping Point 🚨

  • Despite efforts to maintain neutrality, the attack on Pearl Harbor by Japanese forces on December 7th, 1941, led to over 2400 American casualties, prompting Roosevelt's request for a declaration of war against Japan.

  • Consequently, Hitler declared war on America, solidifying U.S. involvement in World War II.

  • Britian's Churchill and Roosevelt met in the Atlantic conference and make the Atlantic charter to create goals for a post-war world

    • Self-determinism

    • Free trade

    • No territorial gains

    • New collective security organization

 

 

 

 

 

7.12 - The Homefront

At Home

  • World War II as a total war involving leveraging of all assets.

  • Federal spending increased by about 1000%, pulling the country out of economic crisis caused by the Great Depression.

  • Government-led mobilization led to increased  GDP by 15%.

  • Private industries were commandeered for wartime production.

    • The War Production Board allocated resources for the war effort

    • Office of Price Administration froze prices, wages, and rationed goods

    • The War Labor Board settled labor disputes to prevent strikes

  • Labor shortage occurred, pushing for women to join the workforce.

    • Women's role in industrial work was promoted through campaigns like "Rosie the Riveter."

  • Liberty bonds were sold to finance the war.

  • Victory gardens were planted to allow for more food to be sent to soldiers abroad.

  • Food, gas, and more was rationed.

 Seeds of Equality

  • Black Americans contributed to the war effort, aiming to address racial tensions and raise their status at home.

  • Executive Order 8022 was given to address discrimination in defense work to keep things running smoothly.

  • The NAACP encouraged black Americans to participate in the Double V Campaign.

  • Black regiments remained segregated but achieved recognition, e.g., Tuskegee Airmen.

  • Mexican Americans also joined the war effort, with significant numbers leaving their agricultural jobs.

  • Women entered the workforce and wanted to remain in it after the war.

 Drafting the Masses

  • The Selective Service Act of 1940 resulted in almost 15 million Americans serving in the war.

  • This was the first peacetime draft.

 Internment Camps

  • Japanese Relocation started in 1942, leading to over 100,000 Japanese Americans being relocated to internment camps.

  • Even the Nisei, who were second generation, US citizens, and born on American soil, were forced to move.

  • Executive Order 9066 authorized the relocation and confiscation of their property.

  • Legal challenge - Korematsu v The United States in 1944 where the Supreme Court ruled the relocation constitutional based on "martial necessity."

    • Korematsu argued 9066 was against the 5th amendment, which it was.

  • The federal government formally apologized and offered reparations in 1988.

 

 

 

7.13 - The Fighting

U.S. Entry into WWII

  • U.S. entry signaled a decisive shift in favor of the Allied Powers. (Britain, Russia, and the US)

  • Fought for democracy and freedom against fascist totalitarianism, particularly the Nazis.

  • Discovery of Jewish concentration camps strengthened American commitment to the war.

  • The Holocaust justified American involvement in the war.

  • Roosevelt was in charge and was prepared to go to battle

  • In the Philippines, American and Filipino soldiers surrendered and were forced on the Battan Death March to prisoner of war camps.

 Strategy

  • Eisenhower was an important Americab military leader

    • Had soldiers document concentration camps for public support

    • Led D-Day invasion

  • Navajo code talkers creates an essentially unbreakable code based their language as Europeans and Japan didn’t not have anyone who knew the language.

  • The Ghost Army was created to trick the Nazis into thinking that there would be an invasion somewhere there wasn’t, the south of France. The real invasion of D-day was in Normandy.

    • They “leaked” invasion plans using a dead body to reinforce this idea, the plans were fake

 Clash in the Pacific: Struggle against Japan

  • Initially, the U.S. focused on the Pacific theater due to Japanese aggression.

  • Key turning points:

    • Battle of the Coral Sea – US started pushing back on Japan

    • Battle of Midway in 1942 – First direct conflict with the Japanese navy, which sucked.

      • They had broken Japan's code

  • Resulted in the pushback of the Japanese from strategic Pacific territories.

  • Island-hopping campaign effectively cut off Japanese supply lines.

 European Front: The Push for Liberation

  • Allies met at the Tehran Conference to discuss opening a second front on the war.

  • Started in Italy, "the soft underbelly" of Europe. (L for Mussolini)

  • Prior to June 1944, Russia was the main defender against the encroaching Germans.

  • D-Day Invasion on the Normandy beaches of Northern France in June 1944 tipped the scales.

  • Largest amphibious invasion in world history, leading to the liberation of France.

  • Hitler’s final major offensive, the Battle of the Bulge, failed.

  • Germany surrendered on May 7th, 1945 (V-E Day or Victory in Europe Day).

  • In Stalingrad, healthy German soldiers were paraded around by Russian soldiers to show off

    • Finally stopped the Germans' advance in Russia

 The End of a Global Conflict

  • Hitler’s death on April 30th, 1945.

  • Germany surrendered on May 7th, 1945.

  • Allied victory in the Pacific Theater achieved through island-hopping campaign.

  • End of the Pacific Theater marked by the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

  • Japan officially surrendered on September 2nd, 1945 (V-J Day or Victory in Japan Day).

  • The GI Bill of Rights was introduced to provide financial aid to veterans

Ethical Controversies: The Atomic Bombings

  • Endless debate over the morality of using atomic bombs.

  • Arguments for and against the decision to use the bombs, considering civilian casualties.

 

 

 

 

 

7.14 - Consequences of World War 2

Emergence of the United States as a Superpower

  • Relatively Little Domestic Destruction: The U.S. emerged from World War II with minimal domestic destruction, unlike Europe and Asia, which allowed for a period of great prosperity.

  • Critical Role in Winning the War: The U.S. leveraged its industrial capacity to aid the allies and played a crucial role in winning the war, especially with the use of atomic bombs in Japan.

Impact of Minorities

  • Many Chicano (Mexicans) moved into America during the war to take over the farms. This was mostly the start of Chicano culture in America.

    • Called “Operation Wetback,” an offensive term

      • Actual name was The Bracero program

    • They wore zoot suits

    • Xenophobes/racists in the police attacked Mexicans in the Zoot Suit riots

  • Navajo were, somewhat, more respected due to their role as code talkers in the war.

  • When African-Americans returned from war, they started the modern civil rights movement. They fought for double V.

    • During the war, there was the “Second Great Migration” where many moved away from the south to enter the newly vacated industrial jobs

  • Women were able to remain in the workforce.

The Ideological Battleground

  • Yalta Conference: Agreements on the joint occupation of Germany and the right of Eastern European nations to choose their leaders through free elections were made at the Yalta Conference. Russia would help America with the fight against Japan

  • Control of Eastern European Nations: Stalin claimed Eastern European nations for the Soviet Union, triggering tension with the U.S and Britain.

Conferences and Treaties

  • The Yalta Conference was discussed above.

  • The Potsdam Conference discussed a post-war structure because Truman and Stalin. Discussed the necessity for Japan to surrender.

  • Bretton Woods Conference was set an economic plan for the future, encouraged international trade, and was between Britain and America

Economic Strategy and Soviet Containment

  • The Marshall Plan: Implemented by the U.S to offer significant financial aid to European nations for rebuilding. The plan aimed to promote democratic capitalism over Soviet communism. 

Foundation of International Cooperation

  • Comparison with the League of Nations: The United Nations was created with the goal of preventing future wars, in contrast to the failed League of Nations.

  • Peacekeeping Role: The U.N. had the capability to enforce peace, evident through its infrastructure and the deployment of peacekeeping soldiers.

Legacy and Global Impact 🕊

  • Significance of Post-War Diplomacy: The U.S. emerged as the most powerful nation on earth and played a crucial role in shaping post-war diplomacy to counter the spread of Soviet communism.

  • Future Implications: The consequences of U.S involvement in World War II led to the establishment of the United Nations and the implementation of The Marshall Plan, influencing global geopolitics in the following years.