solo checkride study guide

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Task A: Pilot Qualifications

Pilot documents required for solo 

• Student Pilot Certificate

• Government-Issued Photo ID 

• Current Medical Certificate (every class)

• Logbook with Solo Endorsement from CFI

When can you log pic( pilot in command) 

• The flight is a solo flight (authorized by an instructor).

• You are the sole occupant of the aircraft.

• You hold a valid endorsement for the specific make and model of the aircraft.

Current medical class help and its duration 

Class 1 (Airline Transport Pilots):

• Under 40: Valid for 12 months.

• Over 40: Valid for 6 months.

Class 2 (Commercial Pilots):

• Valid for 12 months, regardless of age.

Class 3 (Private Pilots and Students):

• Under 40: Valid for 60 months (5 years).

• Over 40: Valid for 24 months (2 years).

14 CFR Part 91.3

The PIC is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.

In an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the PIC may deviate from any rule of this part to the extent required to meet that emergency.

If a PIC deviates from a rule due to an emergency, they may be required to submit a written report of that deviation upon request by the Administrator.

Privileges and limitations applicable to a student pilot. Club/FAA

Privileges

• May act as PIC during solo flights authorized by an instructor.

• May operate under VFR in daylight only unless a night flight endorsement is obtained.

• May fly within the limitations set by the endorsement (e.g., route, altitude).

Limitations:

• Cannot carry passengers.

• Cannot fly for compensation or hire.

• Cannot fly in Class B airspace without proper training and endorsement.

  • Ground and flight training on that specific airspace.

  • Airspace endorsement :fly into it without landing 

  • Airbase : landing at an airport in class B

• Cannot act as PIC for flights requiring more than basic navigation and operation skills.

Club limitations:

• Cannot land runway 10/28

• In 30 days 2 flights, 2 hours, 3 take offs and landings\

• Cannot take off or land if cross wind is 7kts if  forcasteted in currents

• Cannot fly if gusts factor is more than 10 kts

• Total winds can't be over 20 kts

• Flight in pattern 5 sm vis and 2500’ ceiling 

• Local flight 8 sm vis, 3000’ celling 

• Cross country 10 sm vis, 5000’ ceiling  

• Cannot solo if there is ice ,snow cover or patchy snow or ice or, bad braking action if it is less than good. Runway condition code is 4 or less. Aim 4-3-9 runway condition reports 

• Use full length of runway no intersection take offs

• No night flight for solo

Task B: Airworthiness Requirements 

1: Required documents. Plane and pilot

Required Documents for the Pilot

• Student Pilot Certificate

• Issued by the FAA. Must be valid and in your possession.

• Government-Issued Photo ID

• Medical Certificate: At least a third-class medical certificate that is valid based on your age and issuance date.

• Logbook with Endorsements 

  • Endorsements from your flight instructor for solo flight and the specific aircraft make and model.

  • Endorsements are valid for 90 days and must be renewed if expired.

• Pre-Solo Knowledge Test: Proof of completion (typically included in your logbook).

Required Documents for the Aircraft

• ARROW Documents: (These must always be onboard the aircraft)

  • Airworthiness Certificate (visible and legible in the cockpit).

  • Registration Certificate (valid and current).

  • Radios ( for international)

  • Operator’s Manual or Pilot Operating Handbook (specific to the aircraft).

  • Weight and Balance Data (updated and accurate for the aircraft).

• Maintenance Logs:

  • Ensure the aircraft has undergone all required inspections:

  • Annual Inspection (within the last 12 months).

  • 100-Hour Inspection (if the aircraft is used for hire).

  • Transponder Check (every 24 months).

  • ELT Check (every 12 months, or after 1 hour of cumulative use).

• Insurance Documents (if required by the club).

• Required placards (ex. operating limits) must be visible and legible.

Required inspections

MEL

KOEL

91.205

Airworthiness directives ADs

91.213 kinds aircraft's equipment list in poh 

The acronym often used to remember the required inspections for an aircraft is AAV1ATE:

A - Annual Inspection (every 12 calendar months).

A - Airworthiness Directives (ADs) (complied with as specified).

V - VOR Check (every 30 days, required for IFR flight).

1 - 100-Hour Inspection (if for hire or flight instruction).

A - Altimeter and Static System Inspection (every 24 calendar months for IFR).

T - Transponder Inspection (every 24 calendar months).

E - ELT Inspection (every 12 calendar months, with battery replacement if needed).

A-TOMATO FLAMES (Day VFR Equipment)

A - Altimeter

T - Tachometer (for each engine)

O - Oil Pressure Gauge (for each engine using an oil system)

M - Manifold Pressure Gauge (for each altitude engine, if applicable)

A - Airspeed Indicator

T - Temperature Gauge (for each liquid-cooled engine, if applicable)

O - Oil Temperature Gauge (for each air-cooled engine)

F - Fuel Gauge (for each tank)

L - Landing Gear Position Indicator (for retractable gear aircraft)

A - Anti-Collision Lights (for aircraft certified after March 11, 1996)

M - Magnetic Direction Indicator (compass)

E - Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) (if required by 14 CFR 91.207)

S - Safety Belts (for all occupants, and shoulder harnesses for front seats if certified after 1978)

FLAPS (Additional Equipment for Night VFR)

For night VFR, add the FLAPS acronym:

F - Fuses (spare set or circuit breakers)

L - Landing Light (if for hire)

A - Anti-Collision Lights

P - Position Lights (navigation lights)

S - Source of Power (adequate electrical energy supply)

Who Is Responsible for Determining and Maintaining Airworthiness?

Determining Airworthiness:

• PIC (Pilot in Command):

  • The PIC is responsible for determining if the aircraft is airworthy before every flight.

  • This includes verifying required inspections (e.g., annual, 100-hour) are current, the airplane has no known discrepancies that affect safety, and it complies with FARs.

Maintaining Airworthiness:

• Owner/Operator:

  • Responsible for ensuring the aircraft complies with airworthiness requirements.

  • This includes scheduling and completing required maintenance, inspections, and adhering to Airworthiness Directives (ADs).

• Mechanic/Inspector:

  • Certifies that maintenance, repairs, and inspections are performed according to regulations and manufacturer guidelines.

  • Signs off on aircraft logs to confirm maintenance actions are complete.

2. Airworthiness Risk Management

Key Steps for Managing Airworthiness Risk:

1. Preflight Inspection:

   • Thoroughly check for visible damage, fluid leaks, control surface issues, and instrument malfunctions.

   • Use the POH (Pilot's Operating Handbook) checklist for guidance.

2. Review Maintenance Logs:

   • Ensure required inspections are up to date:

     • Annual (12 calendar months).

     • 100-hour inspection (if used for hire).

     • ELT (every 12 months and after 1 hour of cumulative use or half battery life).

     • Transponder (every 24 months).

     • Static system (every 24 months for IFR).

3. Verify Airworthiness Certificates:

   • The aircraft must have:

     • Airworthiness Certificate (visible in the cockpit).

     • Registration Certificate.

4. Use Risk Mitigation Tools:

   • IMSAFE Checklist: Ensure you are ready to fly.

   • PAVE Checklist: Check external factors (e.g., Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, External pressures).

5. Understand Airworthiness Directives (ADs):

   • ADs are mandatory maintenance actions issued by the FAA.

   • Confirm AD compliance with the maintenance log.

3. INOP (Inoperative) Equipment

Key Considerations for Inoperative Equipment:

1. Regulations:

   • FAR §91.213 outlines procedures for operating an aircraft with inoperative equipment.

2. Steps to Determine Legality:

   • Check if the inoperative equipment is:

   • 
     

     2. Required by the aircraft's Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS).

     3. Listed on the aircraft's Minimum Equipment List (MEL) 

     4. KOEL in poh

     5. 91.205

     6. ADs

3. Actions to Take:

   • If equipment is NOT required:

     1. Deactivate it (if possible).

     2. Placard it as "INOP."

     3. squaked / maintnessed logged

   • If equipment IS required:

     1. The aircraft is grounded until repaired.

4. Common Scenarios Without an MEL:

   • If operating under 14 CFR Part 91 (general aviation), follow the four-step checklist:

     1. Is the equipment required by the aircraft's Type Certificate (TCDS)?

     2. Is it required by FAR §91.205 (e.g., ATOMATOFLAMES for day VFR)?

     3. Is it required by an AD?

     4. Is it required for specific operations (e.g., IFR, night)?

Task C: Operations of Systems 

Aircraft Limitions (V speeds)

• VSO: 40 knots

  •  Stall speed in the landing configuration (flaps fully extended).

• VS1: 48 knots

  • Definition: Stall speed in a clean configuration (flaps retracted).

• VX: 62 knots

  •  Best angle of climb speed, providing the most altitude gain over the shortest horizontal distance.

• VY: 74 knots

  •  Best rate of climb speed, providing the most altitude gain in the shortest time.

• VFE:110 knots (partial flaps) 85 knots (full flaps)

  •  Maximum speed at which flaps can be extended safely.

• VNO: 129 knots

•  Maximum structural cruising speed; the upper limit of the normal operating range.

• VNE: 163 knots

  •  Never exceed speed; the absolute speed limit for the aircraft to avoid structural failure.

• VA:105  knots (at maximum gross weight of 2,550 lbs) 98 knots (at 2,200 lbs)

  •  Maneuvering speed; the maximum speed at which you can use full and abrupt control inputs without overstressing the aircraft.

• VR: 55 knots

  •  Rotation speed; the speed at which the pilot begins to lift the nose wheel during takeoff.

• VG: 68 knots

  • : Best glide speed; provides the maximum distance traveled forward for the least altitude lost in an engine-out situation.

Importance of Va: 

105 x current weight / 2550 lb ( max weight)

Ex 

105  × 2200/2550

= VA​≈105×0.9288≈97.5knots

Engine, fuel, oil systems

Type:

Lycoming IO-360-L2A

4-cylinder, horizontally opposed, fuel-injected, air-cooled, naturally aspirated, directed driven; connected directly to the crack shaft.

Produces 180 horsepower at 2,700 RPM.

Key Components:

Air Intake: Supplies air to the engine for combustion. Includes a filter and bypass system.

Magnetos: Provide spark for ignition. Dual magnetos ensure redundancy.

Starter Motor: Used to start the engine, powered by the electrical system.

Operation:

Combines air and fuel for combustion, driving pistons connected to a crankshaft.

Crankshaft power is used to turn the propeller, producing thrust.

Fuel System:

Type:

Gravity-fed with fuel injection, featuring dual tanks (one in each wing).

Capacity:

Total fuel: 56 gallons.

Usable fuel: 53 gallons.

Components:

Fuel Tanks: Located in the wings; vented for pressure equalization.

Fuel Selector Valve: Allows the pilot to select "Both," "Left," "Right," 

Fuel Pump: Engine-driven, with an auxiliary electric pump for priming.

Fuel Vents: Prevent vacuum formation in the tanks. 2 in the fuel caps 1 each. 1 vent behind left strut

Fuel Drains: Located at the lowest points to check for contaminants or water.

Fuel Type:

Typically 100LL Avgas (blue dye for identification). UL 94 purple 100 green

Oil System:

Purpose:

Lubricates engine components to reduce wear.

Provides cooling by carrying away heat from engine parts.

Seals and cleans by suspending contaminants.

Type:

Wet sump system (oil is stored in the engine’s sump).

Capacity:

Total:9

1  quarts in the filter 

Maximum: 8 quarts.

Minimum for operation: 5 quarts.

Components:

Oil Pump: Circulates oil throughout the engine.

Oil Filter: Removes impurities from the oil.

Oil Cooler: Reduces oil temperature.

Dipstick: Measures oil level during preflight inspections.

Leaning and Mixture

The mixture control in your aircraft adjusts the ratio of fuel to air going into the engine.

At lower altitudes, the air is denser, so the engine needs more fuel to maintain the ideal air-fuel ratio.

At higher altitudes, the air is thinner, so less fuel is required to avoid running too "rich" (too much fuel compared to air).

Why Lean the Mixture?

To optimize engine performance, fuel efficiency, and prevent fouling of spark plugs.

Prevent excess fuel from cooling the engine too much or causing rough operation.

Reduce fuel consumption and carbon buildup in the cylinders.

Electrical  and avionics systems

28 volt system

 24 volt battery

60amps alternator

Electrical System:Provides power to essential and non-essential systems like avionics, lights, flaps, and more. Powered by: Battery: Provides initial power to start the engine and serves as backup power.

Alternator: Once the engine is running, it powers the electrical system and recharges the battery. 

Components to Know:

Master Switch: Controls electrical power; it usually has separate sides for the battery and alternator.

Circuit Breakers: Protect electrical components from overload. If a breaker trips, it can often be reset unless there's a persistent issue.

Voltage Regulator: Maintains a consistent voltage output from the alternator to prevent damage to the avionics.

Avionics System:

Avionics include all the electronic systems for navigation, communication, and flight instruments, such as:

Radios

GPS

Transponder

Electronic flight displays (if equipped with a glass cockpit)

Some aircraft have an avionics master switch to isolate avionics from the electrical system during startup, preventing potential damage from electrical surges.

System abnormalities. 

Alternator Failure: Indicated by a discharge on the ammeter or alternator warning light. The battery will provide limited backup power. Conserve power by turning off non-essential equipment and land as soon as practical.

Electrical Fire: Turn off the master switch immediately. Use the fire extinguisher if available and vent smoke while landing as soon as possible.

Radio Failure: Troubleshoot by checking volume, frequency settings, and circuit breakers. Use alternate communication tools, like a handheld radio or light gun signals.

GPS/Navigation Failure: Revert to sectional charts, pilotage, and dead reckoning if needed.

Engine System Abnormalities:

Rough Running Engine: Could result from improper mixture, fouled spark plugs, or carburetor icing. Try adjusting the mixture or applying carburetor heat.

Loss of Power: Possible causes include fuel starvation, ignition failure, or induction blockage. Perform emergency checklists to troubleshoot.

Landing Gear Issues (if retractable):

If the landing gear fails to extend, use emergency gear extension procedures outlined in the POH.

Fuel System Abnormalities:

Fuel starvation/blockage: Switch tanks, verify fuel selector position, check fuel gauges, and use fuel pump if applicable.

Flight Control Failures:

Partial control failures (e.g., jammed rudder or aileron) may require using remaining controls and rudder trim to maintain control.

Vacuum System Failure (for aircraft with gyroscopic instruments):

If the vacuum pump fails, instruments like the attitude indicator and heading indicator may become unreliable. Use backup instruments and other navigation aids.

Task D: Performance and limitations

Review completed TOLD sheet

Fwd vs Aft CG and effect on flight characteristics 

Forward CG:

More stable: The aircraft resists pitching up/down because the CG is farther from the center of lift.

More control authority: The elevator has more leverage to pitch the nose up/down.

Lower cruise speed: Increased drag due to higher trim forces required to maintain level flight.

Higher stall speed: Requires a higher angle of attack to generate lift, increasing the risk of stalling earlier.

When it's encountered: After loading heavy passengers/cargo in the front or insufficient weight in the rear.

Aft CG:

Less stable: Easier to pitch up/down, which can lead to overcontrolling and potential stalls/spins.

Less control authority: Elevator has less leverage, making recovery from stalls/spins more difficult.

Higher cruise speed: Less trim drag.

Lower stall speed: Requires less lift to counteract CG.

When it's encountered: After loading heavy passengers/cargo in the rear or fuel burn shifts weight aft.

Key Safety Considerations:

Forward CG: Safer for stall recovery but harder to control during takeoff/landing.

Aft CG: Risky because it’s less stable and harder to recover from a stall/spin.

Four Forces of Flight 

Lift, weight, thurst, drag

 straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight, lift = weight, and thrust = drag.

Why/when does an airplane stale l? What is an aerodynamic stall?

A stall occurs when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack 

Smooth airflow separates from the wing's surface, leading to a rapid loss of lift.

It is not dependent on airspeed, but airspeed indirectly affects it 

When/Why Does It Happen?

High AOA:

Power-Off Situations:

Low-speed approaches or descents without sufficient power to maintain lift.

Weight/Balance Issues:

Flying with an aft CG can make it easier to reach the critical AOA.

An airplane can stall at any airspeed or attitude if the critical AOA is exceeded.

Stall/ Spin recovery

Use the PARE acronym to recover from a stall safely:

Power: Add power (if available) to increase airspeed.

Attitude: Lower the nose to reduce the angle of attack.

Rudder: Use coordinated rudder to maintain directional control.

Elevate: Smoothly raise the nose to climb out of the stall.

Spin Recovery:

A spin is an aggravated stall with uncoordinated flight, where one wing stalls more than the other, causing the aircraft to spiral.

Spin Recovery Steps (Use PARE):

Power: Throttle to idle to avoid making the spin worse.

Ailerons: Neutralize ailerons to avoid adverse roll effects.

Rudder: Apply FULL opposite rudder to stop the rotation.

Elevator: Push forward to break the stall.

Once the spin stops, neutralize rudder and recover to level flight.

Task E: Weather Information

Prog Charts and Associated Weather 

What are Prog Charts?

Surface Prognostic (Prog) Charts are weather forecasting tools that show expected conditions, including pressure systems, precipitation, and fronts.

Typically include:

Surface Analysis: Depicts pressure systems, fronts, and isobars.

12-24 Hour Forecast: Shows expected precipitation, weather fronts, and pressure changes.

Identify high/low pressure systems: High pressure = stable weather; low pressure = unstable.

Cold Fronts: Expect turbulence, thunderstorms, and rapidly dropping temperatures.

Warm Fronts: May bring steady rain and reduced visibility.

Stationary Fronts: Often lead to prolonged, localized weather issues.

AIRMETs/SIGMETs

AIRMETs (Airmen’s Meteorological Information):

Issued for less severe weather that affects safety, particularly for smaller aircraft.

Sierra: IFR conditions/mountain obscuration.

Tango: Moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds > 30 knots.

Zulu: Icing and freezing levels.

SIGMETs (Significant Meteorological Information):

Issued for severe weather affecting all aircraft.

Severe turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT).

Severe icing.

Volcanic ash or dust storms.

Recognition, causes, and mitigations of LLWS, wake turbulence, and micro-birst.

Low-Level Wind Shear (LLWS):

Recognition: Sudden, dramatic changes in wind speed/direction, particularly during takeoff and landing.

Causes: Frontal boundaries, thunderstorms, and temperature inversions.

Mitigation:

Monitor ATIS for LLWS advisories.

Maintain a stabilized approach; be prepared for quick go-arounds.

Wake Turbulence:

Recognition: Formed by large aircraft; strongest behind heavy, clean, and slow airplanes.

Causes: Vortices created by wingtip airflow.

Mitigation:

Avoid flying behind larger aircraft's flight path.

Stay above and upwind of their glide path when landing.

Wait the recommended 2-3 minutes for wake turbulence to dissipate.

Microbursts:

Recognition: Intense downdrafts from thunderstorms; short but highly destructive.

Causes: Thunderstorm activity with rapidly descending air.

Mitigation:

Avoid flying in thunderstorm-prone areas.

Use radar or ATC advisories to detect severe weather.

Execute immediate escape maneuvers if caught.

Seasonal considerations: frost, density altitude 

4. Seasonal Considerations: Frost and Density Altitude

Frost:

Why it’s dangerous:

Disrupts smooth airflow over the wings, drastically reducing lift.

Mitigation:

Remove all frost before flight, even if it seems minor.

Be cautious about overnight temperature drops.

Density Altitude:

What it is: Pressure altitude corrected for temperature and humidity.

Why it’s critical:

High density altitude reduces engine performance, lift, and climb rate.

Common during hot, humid, or high-elevation conditions.

Mitigation:

Calculate density altitude during preflight.

Reduce weight, delay flight until cooler parts of the day, or choose longer runways.

Student’s go/no-go decision and risk management/ mitigation 

1. PAVE Checklist:

   • Pilot: Are you fit? (IMSAFE: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Emotion).

   • Aircraft: Is it airworthy and properly equipped?

   • enVironment: Check weather, terrain, NOTAMs, etc.

   • External pressures: Avoid “get-there-itis.”

2. Weather Minimums:

   • Adhere to personal minimums and FAR requirements.

   • Consider crosswinds, visibility, and turbulence.

3. Emergency Preparedness:

   • Be confident in alternate airports, fuel reserves, and emergency plans.

Risk Management/Mitigation:

• 5P Checklist: Evaluate critical factors at regular intervals.

  • Pilot: Are you staying alert and confident?

  • Plane: Any new system issues in-flight?

  • Plan: Has the weather or route changed?

  • Programming: Familiarize yourself with avionics to avoid distractions.

  • Passengers: Consider passenger needs and communication.

Task F: Local Area Operations 

Airport Signage and marking

Runway Signs:

• Runway Holding Position Markings: Yellow dashed and solid lines; stop before crossing when instructed by ATC.

• Runway Numbers: Indicate magnetic heading (e.g., Runway 18 = 180°).

Taxiway Signs:

• Taxiway Direction Signs (Yellow on Black): Identify your current taxiway (e.g., “Taxiway A”).

• Direction Signs (Black on Yellow): Indicate directions to runways or other taxiways.

Critical Areas:

• ILS Critical Area Markings: Hold short to avoid interfering with Instrument Landing System signals.

Other Markings:

• Displaced Threshold: Arrows before a runway threshold, used for taxiing, takeoff, or rollout—not landing.

• Chevrons: Found on unusable portions of the runway, typically for overrun safety.

Collision avoidance 

Eyes Outside (See-and-Avoid):

• Regularly scan in 10°-15° increments.

• Focus on areas with high traffic, like near the pattern or practice areas.

Traffic Pattern Awareness:

• Know where to look for other aircraft during crosswind, downwind, base, and final legs.

• Use the radio to announce position and intentions.

Collision Avoidance Tools:

• Use onboard systems like ADS-B for traffic alerts.

• Listen to CTAF at uncontrolled airports for other pilots’ positions.

Right-of-Way Rules:

• Landing aircraft have the right of way.

• Converging: Aircraft on the right have priority.

• Overtaking: Pass on the right.

• Head-on: Both aircraft turn right.

Practice areas: pilotage to and from solo within 25 nm

Lost Comms, light guns, cell phones

Radio Troubleshooting:

• Ensure the correct frequency and verify volume/squelch.

• Try secondary radios or handheld devices if equipped.

Light Gun Signals (from ATC):

• Steady Green: Cleared to take off/land.

• Flashing Green: Cleared to taxi or return for landing.

• Steady Red: Stop or give way to traffic.

• Flashing Red: Taxi clear of the runway.

• Flashing White: Return to the starting point on the airport.

• Alternating Red/Green: General caution.

Use Cell Phones:

• If lost comms happen near the airport, call ATC or Unicom using a cell phone.

Flight Plan Protocols:

• Squawk 7600 for lost comms.

• Follow your filed flight plan and the last assigned altitude and route clearance.

Assess handling of non-standard ATC instructions 

Short Approach Requests: ATC may ask you to expedite landing; be prepared to adjust.

Extended Downwind: Maintain heading and altitude until instructed to turn base.

Unexpected Holding Patterns: Fly standard-rate turns and maintain altitude.

Wake Turbulence Separation Instructions: ATC may direct you to wait for a longer interval.

Call downwind

Task G: National Airspace System

SUA 

Local Airspace familiarity 

Chart symbology 

VFR Wx Minimums

Task H: Human Factors

Review personal minimums sheet 

Club policy/limitations for solo flight 

Cannot solo runway 10-26

ADM/SRM

Aeronautical Decision Making

Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM):

SRM focuses on managing all resources available to a single pilot during flight, including hardware, information, and human assistance.

Proficiency vs Currency 

Currency refers to meeting regulatory requirements, while proficiency refers to a pilot's actual skills and competence. 

PAVE Checklist

The PAVE checklist is a tool that pilots use to categorize and evaluate risks before each flight. The acronym PAVE stands for the four categories of risk that pilots consider:

P: pilot-in-command

A: aircraft

V: enVironment

E: external pressures

IMSAFE Checklist

Illness: Whether the pilot is sick or has symptoms that could affect their ability to fly 

Medication: Whether the pilot is taking any medications that could impair their ability to fly 

Stress: Whether the pilot is experiencing unusual psychological pressure or anxiety 

Alcohol: Whether the pilot has consumed alcohol within the last eight hours or is currently under the influence 

Fatigue: Whether the pilot has had enough sleep 

Emotion: Whether the pilot is emotionally upset about anything 

Class A: High-Altitude Controlled Airspace

1. Altitude: 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL600 to 600.

2. Requirements:

   • Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) only.

   • ATC clearance and IFR-equipped aircraft.

   • Mode C transponder and ADS-B Out required.

   • Pilot and plane need to be ifr rated

   • No sectional depiction

3. Purpose: Encompasses high-level enroute traffic.

Class B: Busy Airport Airspace

1. Altitude: 3 layers Surface to 10,000 feet MSL around major airports.

2. Requirements:

   • ATC clearance required.

   • Mode C transponder and ADS-B Out within 30 nautical miles (Mode C veil).

   • Two-way radio communication.

   • Solid Blue on map

3. Purpose: Separates and manages traffic in the busiest areas, e.g., Los Angeles (LAX).

Mode c veil in bravo. 

30 NM radius from airport. We need mode C because we fall under denver's veil. 

Class C: Medium Airport Airspace

1. Altitude: Surface to 6,000 feet AGL around airports with moderate traffic.

2. Structure:

   • Core: 5 NM radius from surface to 4,000 feet AGL.

   • Shelf: 10 NM radius from 1,200 to 4,000 feet AGL.

3. Requirements:

   • Two-way radio communication with ATC before entry.

   • Mode C transponder and ADS-B Out.

4. Purpose: Provides ATC services for smaller but busy airports, e.g., Colorado Springs (COS).

Class D: Small Airport Airspace

1. Altitude: Surface to 2,500 feet AGL around smaller airports with a control tower.

2. Requirements:

   • Establish two-way radio communication with ATC before entry.

   • No transponder or ADS-B Out required unless in specific areas.

3. Purpose: Local control of aircraft at airports with moderate operations, e.g., Centennial Airport (APA).

Class E: Controlled Airspace Not Otherwise Designated

1. Altitude:

   • Begins at 700 or 1,200 feet AGL, or from the surface in some cases.

   • Extends up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL.

   • Includes transition areas, Victor airways, and offshore routes.

   • 700 agl non standard - fuzzy magenta 

   • 1200 agl standard- no depiction 

   • Surface - dashed magenta  

2. Requirements:

   • No specific equipment below 10,000 feet MSL.

   • Above 10,000 feet: Mode C transponder and ADS-B Out required.

3. Purpose: Separates IFR and VFR traffic and provides a safe transition between controlled airspace.

Class G: Uncontrolled Airspace

1. Altitude: Surface up to the overlying Class E (typically 700 or 1,200 feet AGL).

2. Requirements:

   • No ATC services; pilots operate under see-and-avoid.

   • No equipment or communication required.

3. Purpose: Covers low-level airspace in remote areas.

Special Use Airspace (SUA)

MCPRAWN acronym 

Military: 

Controlled firing area: Not depicted 

Prohibited : no 

Restricted 

Alert

Warning 

National security area. : No 

1. Prohibited Areas: No entry allowed (e.g., White House airspace).

2. Restricted Areas: Entry requires permission (e.g., military operations).

3. Warning Areas: Similar to restricted but over international waters.

4. MOAs (Military Operations Areas): VFR allowed, but use caution due to military training.

5. Alert Areas: High pilot training or unusual activity; VFR allowed.

6. Controlled Firing Areas: No restrictions; activity ceases when aircraft are nearby.

Other Airspace Types

1. TFR (Temporary Flight Restrictions):

   • Issued for events or emergencies; check NOTAMs before flight. VANSS

   • VIPs (POTUS)

   • Airshows

   • Natural disasters 

   • Sporting events  (30k people or more)

   • Space operations 

Depicted in Red dashed circle 

2. National Security Areas (NSA):

   • Pilots are requested to avoid these areas for security.

3. Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ):

   • Boundary around the U.S.; requires a flight plan and radio communication for 

   • entry.

4. Special flight rules area (DC)

5. Special air traffic rules

Key Equipment/Rules

1. Below 10,000 Feet MSL:

   • No ADS-B Out required except in Classes B/C.

2. Above 10,000 Feet MSL:

   • ADS-B Out and Mode C transponder required.

3. Visibility and Cloud Clearance (by airspace):

   • Varies significantly between Classes B, C, D, E, and G. Always refer to the VFR weather minimums.

Summary Chart

Star means limit