Chapter 8

Islamic world through 1450

key points:

• fastest growing major religion in the world today

• islam is rooted in faith in one God, Allah

• taught by prophets, like Muhammad (570-632 CE), expanded islam rapidly, reaching form persia to spain

• islam is the predominant religion in the arab countries; middle east, north africa, non arab countries; iran, pakistan, indonesia, and niger

Pre-islamic bedouin culture

• Established in the arabian peninsula in the 6th century

• Mainly nomadic, tribal, and polytheistic

“Sheikh ruled each clan or tribe with consent of a tribal council”

• Entire tribe was apart of the culture, and had a sacred stone (main was a black stone at the city of Mecca)

• No separate class of priests

• Values emphasized honesty and generosity

• Polygyny: when a man has more than one wife at a time, was allowed, partly as a way to care for widows whose husbands had died in raids or warfare

• Included worship of a supreme deity: Allah

*these such values would provide continuity when incorporated into Islam!

“land trade routes via camels formed the basis of the arabian economy!”

• trade by sea (red sea and arabian sea) became popular after fighting subsided between the byzantine in the north and the sassanid to the north and east

• wealth of merchants and traders increased, forcing the bedouins to compete

muhammad and islam

• muhammad was borin in bedouin in 570, becoming a caravan manager

• due to his work, Muhammad regularly came into contact with christians, jews, and zoroastrians

• married a rich widow in mecca, and over the years, he experienced revelations that he attributed to an angel of the deity he referred to as Allah

• such revelations were later collected, put into the quran (also spelled koran, meaning “reciations”)

• muhammad criticized pilytheism, tribal loyalties, and commercial practices; calling for social justice, including alms for the poor

the spread of islam

• muhammad’s ideas slowly diffused through preaching, and was viewed as a great prophet by his followers; the final one in line that included abraham, moses, and jesus

• however, muhammad was not worshipped as the “divine”, unlike chrisitanity in which Jesus is considered the “Son of God” by almost all Christians

• his teachings led to conflict with mecca’s leaders, rejecting his idea of one true deity, therefore persecuting his kin and those who worshipped Allah

• Muhammad and his followers fled and escaped to medina in 622, returning ten years later to conquer mecca, declaring the home of the sacred black stone -- the Ka’aba -- a shrine of islam

• the arabian peninsula was mainly united under islam, but drought, combined with the desire of the rulers of islam to extend their trade routes, encouraged the new converts to move out of the arabian penincula, carrying their faith and introducing it to others

• also spread through military conquest, yet islamic rule was relatively tolerant (no one was forced to convert to the faith)

• conquered people could become exempt from military service if they paid a tax

*the strong allegiance among arabs to islam and the egalitarian nature of the religion attracted many new converts!

core theological principles of muhammad

“islam emerged as the third great world religion to come from southwest asia”

• similar to judaism and chrisitanity, islam was a monotheistic faith that hinored abraham and other prophets

• followers of islam showed great respect toward these other people of the book; the core theological principles of islam ..

• the ideas of salvation and hope of an afterlife

• the importance of submission to the will of allah (the one true god)

• a belief in the quran as the sacred book provided guidance and laws for the followers

islam in practice

“muslims have a core set of obligation that have become known as the five pillars”

1. believing in only one god -- allah

2. praying five times daily

3. giving alms to the poor

4. fasting during the month of ramadan

5. making a pilgrimage to mecca once in a lifetime

• the most controversial princple of islam is the concept of jihad, or struggle to strive in the way of allah and to improve both oneself and society

• some interpreted jihad, as a requirement to go to war to preserve and extend islam

shariah

• developed by muslim scholars after the death of muhammad

• the islamic code of law that outlines behavioral requirements for daily life

ex:

• morality and honesty

• bans gambling

• eating pork

• drinking alcohol

• polygymy is permitted in some circumstances, but muhammad limited the practice to 4 wives

• muslims were cautioned to not enslave muslims, christians, or jews

*iran, parts of nigeria, afghanistan, libya, oman, saudi arabia, sudan, and yemen have based their laws on shariah!!

the first four caliphs and umayyads

“when muhammad died in 632, his followers split over who would become the leader of the islamic communtiy”

• some advocated for abu bakr, his father-in-law, and ali, his cousin and son-in-law

• abu bakr won the title of caliph, or head of state, and was responsible for guiding the islamic world in accordance with the dictates of the quran

• ali, who lost the dispute, eventually became the fourth caliph

“the dispute divided islam into factions, still existing today”

abu bakr’s supporters

• sunni group, or sunnis

• consider the first four successor the “rightly guided caliphs

• 85%-90% of muslims today

ali’s supporters

• shia group, also known as the shiites

• consider ali the first true caliph

• Strongest in iran and iraq

*the term dar al-islam refers to al of islamic culture, including shia and sunni

• as caliphs conquered lands beyinf the arabian peninsula, they spread islam; the arabic language, and the cultivation of cotton, sugar, and citrus crops

• abu bakr led raids and seized lands from the byzantine empire, based in constantinople and the persian sassanid empire

• political conquest often led to religious convergence, but NOT always!! (muhammad had taught that people should not be forced to become muslim

• conquering forces had a financial reason not to require religious conversion because muslims were exempt from certain taxes; conversions reduced on tax collections

• ali, the fourth caliph ruled from 656 to 661 when he was assassinated

• a network of merchants from mecca, as well as capable generals and strong armies, assumed power, founding the umayyad dynasty

• this sunni dynasty moved the capital to damascus, where it governed the huge empire for approximately 90 years

*ultimately, the umayyad’s control reached as far west as gibraltar, in the iberian peninsula, and as far east as india, controlling the largest territory since the roman empire!!

effects:

• however, ali’s followers resisted the umayyad leaders, causing shia beliefs to develop political and religious components

• their community leader became known as imam, rather than caliph

umayyads and abbasids

• after 90 years, the umayyad rulers had grown weak and corrupt, their capital, damascus, falling to the abbasids in 750

• the abbasids founded a new city as their capital, baghdad, situated in an ideal spot for trans-eurasian trade

• baghdad soon rivaled constantinople in both wealth and population, and the abbasid caliphate became one of the most powerful and innovating empires of its time!

baghdad’s influence

• this city capital became a center of learning

• the invention of technique to make thicker, more useful paper was an achievement of Baghdad

• The expansion of the intellectual world of baghdad represented a “golden age” of learning

the influence of persia

• arabic was the official language of persia, broughten by islam in 651, and non-arab believers such as persians were treated as second-class citizens

• in the 9th century, persian muslims began a movement against the privileged status of the arabs, arguing that the practice went against the islamis principles of brotherhood and equality

• persians were able to convert to islam while maintaining their distinctive persian culture and language

• persia contributed remarkable scholars, scientists, and poets during the “islamic golden age”

• Avicenna (903-1037), was the polymath known to the west who advanced the science of medicine and wrote on topics; such as astronomy, geography, and logic

• Rumi (1207-1273) was a persian poet, theologian, and jurist whose poetry was influential around the world .. his teachings became the basis of the sufi movement within islam

problems for the abbasids

• although baghdad continued to flourish intellectually, the rulers confronted difficulties with tax collection and control of far flung provinces

• grain and produce reached the city as partial payment for taxes from provincial governors, so the central administration tried to standardize tax collection to be in cash only

• administrators hoped this reform would better support the government and minimize corruption by provincial officials

• overtime, the political empire became increasingly hierarchical with an ever-growing bureaucracy

• viziers (prime ministers) would communicate the will of the ruler to the people

• being a ruler was a dangerous occupation and leaders faced frequent assassiantion attempts

invasions and trade shifts

• in the 1100s and 1200s, the abbasid empire suffered from a problem that plagued many prosperous empires: attacks from outside groups

• four different groups successfully assaulted parts of the abbasid empire, coming form the west or north

mamluks

• originated from egypt

• a turkic group that had formerly been military slaves

• took control of egypt and established an empire across north africa

seljuk turks

• were muslim like the abbasids, originiating from central asia

• Seized parts of the middle east, including baghdad

• title of their leader was the sultan, reducing the abbasid caliph to the role of chief sunni religious authority

• almost immediately began threatening the neighboring byzantine empire

crusaders

• the conquest of the seljuk turks brought a third invader into the region; crusaders from europe

• seljuk turks limited christians’ access to travel easily around jerusalem, so europe organized crusades to reopen access

mongols

• fourth group to attach the abbasid empire; also the most famous conquerors in history

• hailed from central asia

• conquered what was left of the abbasid empire in 1258, pushing out the seljuk turks from baghdad

• continuing advancing westward, but were stopped in egypt by mamluks

• soon converted to islam after conquered by the ming dynasty

economic challenges

“the abbasids faced economic as well as military challenges, particularly, trade patterns were shifting”

• baghdad lost its traditional place on the southern silk road trade route when goods behan moving more frequently along northern routes

• overtime, baghdad lost population and its canals fell into disrepair and the countryside could not sustain the agricultural needs of the uprising urban population

*slowly, the infrastructure that had made baghdad a great city fell into decay!!

islamic rule in spain

• the umayyads ruled briefly in the middle east, but had more success further west

• in 711, after muslim fored defeated the byzantine armies across north africa, they successfully invaded spain from the south

• cordoba was the designated capital for spain, rapidly expanding northward, sending forced into france

battle of tours

• islamic military was turned back in 732 when it lost the battle of tours against franksih forces

• this defeat during the 700s marked the limit of rapid islamic expansion into western europe

• most of the continent remained christians, but muslims ruled spain for the next seven centuries

prosperity under islam

• umayyad rulers in cordoba created a climate toleration with muslims and chrsitians, similar to the abbasids in baghdad

• promoted trade with chinese and southeast asian products entering spain and through the rest of europe

• goods in the trade traveled aboard ships called dhows, first developed in india or china, with long, thin hulls that made them excellent for carrying goods and conducting warfare

• the influence of islamic architecture can still be seen in spain today, as palaces and fortresses were constructed during this period (13th century), built outside present-day grenada

scholars in spain

• the islamic state known as al-andalus, became the center of learning, cordoba being the home of the largest library in the world at the time

• Ibn rushd, was a famous spain scholar, known in europe as averroes (12th century) : he wrote influential works on law, secular philosophy, and the natural sciences

• another great scholars of ethics during this period was maimonides, who was jewish

social and cultural life

• overtime, the isalmis world fragmented politically but advanced culturally

• trade brought in new goods and fresh ideas, as well as baghdad and cordoba, cairo in egypt, and bukhara in central asia developing great universities

• islamic centers of learning were not limited to the study of religious teachings, as some scholars translated greek literary classics inti arabic, saving the works of aristotle and other greek philosophers

• scholars also brought back mathematics texts from india and techniques for paper-making from china

• medical advances in hospital care improved in cities such as cairo, while doctors and pharmacists studied for examinations for licenses that would allow them to practice

• writers, such as the persian omar khayyam, author of the rubaiyat, created works well known throughout the world today

social classes in the islamic world

• before the era of muhammad, farmers and sailors were more common in the arabian peninsula than pastoral nomads

• nomads led the camel caravans that built trade relationships between coastal and interior dwellers

• trade between the byzantine and islamic empires created contacts between muslims, christians, and jews; kinship remaining the foundation of social relations in the early islamic world

• however, the increase of trade along the red sea caused the growth of a powerful merchant elite in many cities

• mosques and shariah provided a common base for social and cultural life between mecca and medina during the era of muhammad

• in non-arab areas of islamic expansion, control by islamic caliphs led to discrimmination toward non-arabs, yet rarely open to persecution

• such discrimmination gradually faded in the 9th century, and caliph’s soldiers were forbidden to own territory that they conquered

*the presence of a permanent military force that kept order but did not own property allowed life for most of the inhabitants of the countryside to remain virtually unchanged!!

• however, people paid tribute to islamic caliphs rather than to byzantine rulers

commerce and class

• the role of merchants in islamic society was more prestigious than in other societies in europe and asia at the time

• muhammad was a merchant, as well as his first wife, and merchants could grow rich from their dealings with far-flung trade routes across the indian ocean and central asia

• merchants were esteemed as long as they maintained fair dealings and gave to charity in accordance with the five pillars of the islamic faith, giving alms to the poor

slavery

• islam allowed slavery, but muslims could not enslave other muslims, jews, christians, or zoroastrians

• slaves were often imported from africa, kievan rus, and central asia, but the instiution of hereditary slavery did not develop

• many slaves converted to islam, after which their owners freed them and their children

women in slavery

• sometimes served as concubines to islamic men, who already had wed their allotment of four wives, polygymy

• allowed more independence; such as going to markets or running errands, unlike legal wives

• only slave women were permitted to dance or perform musically before unrelated men, presenting an opportunity that sometimes allowed female slaves to accumulate enough money to buy their freedom

free women in islam

“some practices now associated with islam were ocmmon cultural customs in central asia and the byzantine empire before the time of muhammad”

ex:

• women often covered their heads and faces, solidifying an islamic practice with most women observing hijab, a term that can refer to either the practice of dressing modestly or to a specific type of covering

• men often wore head coverings, from turbans to skull caps

• women could not study nor read, and they were not to do so in the compact of men not related to them

muhammad’s policies

“muhammad raised the statues of women in several ways, treating his own wives with love and devotion”

• insisted that dowries, the price a prospective husband paid to secure a bride, be paid to the future wife, rather than to her father

• forbade female infanticide, the killing of newborn girls

• most important attribute was the mhammad’s first wife was educated and wonder her business, setting a pattern for recognition of women’s abilities

the status of women

*overall, islamic women enjoyed a higher status than christian or jewish women!

• islamic women were allowed to inherit property and retain ownership after marriage

• allowed to remarry if widowed, and could receive a cash settlement if divorced

• under specific conditions, a wife could initiate divorce

• moreover, women could practice birth control

• islamic women who testified in a court under shariah were to be protected from retaliation, but their testimony was worth only half that of a man

*a gap in the historical record is written evidence of how women viewed their reposition in society: most records created before 1450 were written by men

“the rise of towns and cities resulted in new limitations on women’s rights!! their new status might best be symbolized by the veil and the harem, a dwelling set aside for wives, concubines, and the children of these women”

sufism

• as islam spread, it became more varied .. sufis beginning to appear in india and persia

• notable for their shaved heads, sufis followed rituals and ecstatic chants in attempts to unite with god

• groups abstained from earthly pleasures, and some used whirling dancing to express religious ecstasy

• emphasized introspection to grasp truths that they believed could not be understood through learning, unlike muslims who focused on intellectual pursuits

• may have begun as a mystical response to the perceived love of luxury by the early umayyad caliphate

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