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History of Medical Technology - Vocabulary Flashcards

Comprehensive Study Notes: History and Inventions in Medical Technology

  • HISTORY OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT

    • Early medical diagnoses were regarded as a mystery; belief in outcomes from negative interaction between environment and body.

    • HIPPOCRATES — Father of Medicine; author of the Hippocratic Oath.

    • Rudimentary and qualitative assessment of disorders:

      • Rudimentary: physicians used senses (e.g., tasting urine, listening to lungs, observing outward appearances).

      • Qualitative: measurement of body fluids / the four humors.

    • Four-humors theory related to seasons: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile.

    • CLAUDIUS GALENUS (Galen): Greek physician/philosopher.

    • Described diabetes as the “diarrhea of urine.”

      • Cardinal Symptoms of Diabetes:

      • POLYDIPSIA: excessive thirst

      • POLYURIA: excessive urine output

      • POLYPHAGIA: excessive hunger

    • Established relationship between fluid intake and urine volume.

      • Uroscopy: water-casting; widely practiced in medieval Europe for diagnosis.

    • CHARACTERISTICS OF URINE (1st book detailing urine)

    • Color: indicates bodily state and dietary intake.

    • Density: \rho = \frac{m}{v}; density concept explained by Archimedes’ law of density (buoyancy).

    • Quality: volume excreted and turbidity; indicates cells or microorganisms in urine.

    • Odor: now considered a characteristic in modern practice.

    • Diagnosis concepts:

    • Symptom: subjective experience of patient.

    • Sign: physician’s observation.

    • Clinical practice shifts:

    • Medical practitioners were prohibited from conducting physical examinations of the body.

    • Mechanical techniques and cadaver dissections used for objective diagnosis.

    • Began using machines for diagnosis or therapeutics.

    • SPIROMETER

    • Invented by John Hutchinson.

    • Measures vital capacity of the lungs.

    • Unit of measurement: \text{L} (liters).

  • TECHNOLOGICAL BREAKTHROUGHS IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

    • 1816: STETHOSCOPE

    • 1840: MICROSCOPE

    • 1850: OPHTHALMOSCOPE

    • 1855: LARYNGOSCOPE

    • 1859: X-RAY

    • 1903: ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)

    • 1910: KENNY METHOD

    • 1927: DRINKER RESPIRATOR

    • 1939: HEART-LUNG MACHINE

    • 1941: CARDIAC CATHETERIZATION AND ANGIOGRAPHY

    • SPHYGMOMANOMETER (blood pressure):

    • Indirect method by Jules Herrison; reinvented in 1881 for reconstruction by Samuel Siegfried Karl von Basch.

    • Measures blood pressure using mmHg as the unit.

    • Invented by René Laënnec.

    • FIRST PRACTICAL MICROSCOPE

    • Devised by ANTOINE VAN LEEUWENHOEK.

    • VISUAL TECHNIQUE & EYE: Helmholtz

    • First developed visual technology; targets the retina.

    • LARYNGOSCOPE OBSERVATION

    • Manuel Garcia: two mirrors used to observe the throat and larynx.

    • X-RAY DISCOVERY

    • Wilhelm Röntgen: X-ray penetrates objects of low density; used in diagnosis (pneumonia, pleurisy, tuberculosis since WW2; also for locating bullets).

    • ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY & ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY

    • William Einthoven: measures electrical changes during the beating of the heart; waves P, QRS, T, U.

    • KENNY METHOD (POLIO THERAPY)

    • Elizabeth Kenny: pioneering work for modern physical therapy to combat polio (infantile paralysis).

    • Against rigid splints; used damp hot packs to increase blood circulation; introduced slow-paced physical therapy.

    • TRANSPORT & THERAPY DEVICES

    • Sylvia Stretcher (1927): used for transporting patients in shock.

    • Drinker Respirator (Philip Drinker, 1927): aided respiration for poliomyelitis patients with artificial respiration.

    • OPEN-HEART SURGERY & CARDIOPULMONARY SUPPORT

    • John Gibbon: heart-lung machine for open-heart surgery.

    • Early work by Forsmann (1929); later development (1930–1940) by Moniz, Reboul, Rousthoi.

    • Safe approach discovered by Cournand in 1941; enabled viewing heart, lung vessels, and valves.

  • HISTORY OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

    • 1895, 1918, 1920, 1922, 1950 (Key eras in progression)

    • WILLIAM PEPPER LABORATORY OF CLINICAL MEDICINE

    • First clinical laboratory in America, located at the University of Pennsylvania.

    • CERTIFICATION OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGISTS

    • John Kolmer developed a method to certify medical technologists; previously MT was a training program.

    • DIRECTION OF CLINICAL LABORATORIES

    • Administrative units in large hospitals were directed by chief physicians; divisions typically 4–5.

    • Modern direction by pathologists.

    • AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR CLINICAL PATHOLOGY (ASCP)

    • Promotes cooperation between physicians and clinical pathologists; established code of ethics for technicians and technologists.

    • Registered Medical Technologists in the Philippines aiming to work in the US must take ASCP’s test.

    • LICENSURE & PROFESSIONAL RECOGNITION

    • Administration of licensure examinations for MTs.

    • HOSPITALS & HEALTHCARE STRUCTURE (PHILIPPINES IMPORTS)

    • HOSPITAL REAL: First hospital in the Philippines; established by Spaniards; moved from Cebu City to Manila for military patients.

    • SAN LAZARO HOSPITAL: Built by the Franciscans for the poor and lepers; reference hospital for infectious diseases.

    • HOSPITAL DE SAN JUAN DE DIOS: Founded for poor Spaniards.

    • UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS (UST): Founded by the Dominicans.

    • HOSPITAL DE SAN JOSE: Founded in Cavite.

    • VACCINE LYMPH

    • Beginning of production and distribution by the central board of vaccination.

  • HISTORY OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

    • 1565-1641 timeline markers; 📖1871 and onward highlight clinical-imperial transitions

    • ANGIOGRAPHY (1871)

    • Insertion of cannula through an arm vein into the heart with radiopaque dye for X-ray visualization; ANGIOGRAPHY becomes a key visualization technique for vessels.

    • WILLIAM PEPPER LABORATORY (First clinical lab in US) and related Philippine context

    • LABORATORY & HEALTH SYSTEM EVOLUTION

    • LABORATORIO MUNICIPAL DE MANILA established by Spaniards; responsible for examination of food, water, and clinical samples; General Antonio Luna as chemical expert; pioneering water testing, forensics, environmental studies.

    • VACCINE LYMPH & VACCINATORS

    • 122 regular vaccinators in Manila and towns; Spaniards as medical authorities; exploration of microbial causes of diseases; later reorganizations under American governance.

    • AMERICAN TRANSITION & PUBLIC HEALTH INFRASTRUCTURE

    • Americans established public institutions modeled after military healthcare.

    • FIRST RESERVE HOSPITAL replacing Spanish Military Hospital; Henry Lipincott as chief surgeon.

    • RICHARD P. STRONG maximized diagnostics lab services (autopsies, bodily fluids, laboratory services).

    • BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT LABORATORIES (Philippines)

    • Established under the Philippine Commission Act No. 156; aimed to improve diagnosis, treatment, and prevention; destroyed during World War II; later space used by UP Manila NIH.

    • BUREAU OF SCIENCE

    • Established for medical officers pursuing laboratory research; collaboration with PGH and UP.

    • END OF THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR AND BEYOND (1927–1954)

    • 1927: Army Board for Tropical Disease collaboration; microbiology focus.

    • Civilian Board of Health → Bureau of Health; reorganized as Philippine Health in 1915; revert in 1933.

    • CERTIFICATE IN PUBLIC HEALTH: University of the Philippines College of Public Health established; training for medical officers.

    • WORLD WAR II IMPACT: Japanese aerial assault on Manila shortly after Pearl Harbor.

    • MEDICAL LABORATORY UNIT OF US: provided comprehensive lab services (clinical, epidemiological, sanitary investigations, water testing, food examination, epidimiology, etc.).

    • 3RD MEDICAL LABORATORY: assigned to SWPA (South West Pacific Area).

    • RELOCATION OF LABORATORIES: multiple general labs relocated to West Pacific; small detachments deployed to military bases.

    • MANILA PUBLIC HEALTH LABORATORY: first clinical laboratory in the Philippines; reopened under Dr. Mariano Icasiano and Dr. Alfredo Pio de Roda; later endorsements to National Department of Health when Americans left.

    • EDUCATION & TRAINING EXPANSION

    • BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY (MT)

      • Approved by the Bureau of Private Education for a 4-year course.

    • FIRST SCHOOL IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

      • 6-month syllabus program organized by Dr. Sta Ana; opened by Manila Sanitarium Hospital; led by Mrs. Willa Hedrick.

      • Established medical internship and residency training; affiliated with Loma Linda University (California); later absorbed by Philippine universities; clinical division remained.

  • 1954–1961: INVENTIONS AND INNOVATIONS IN THE FIELD OF MEDICAL LABORATORY

    • DR. JESSE UMALI

    • First MT graduate; MD from Far Eastern University; became OB-GYN in the US.

    • MT AT UST & OFFICIAL IMPLEMENTATION

    • MT offered as an elective to Pharmacy students at first; later recognized as an official program at the University of Santo Tomas (UST).

    • ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK

    • Father of Microbiology; work on improving the microscope; importance to MT for observing microorganisms.

    • EDWARD JENNER

    • Discovered smallpox vaccination; impact on immunology.

    • COWPOX: mild disease from cows; milkmaids with cowpox gained immunity to smallpox.

    • VARIOLATION: exposure to disease to induce immunity; risk of fatal outcomes.

    • Vaccination derived from Greek word "Vacca" (cow).

    • MARIE FRANÇOIS XAVIER BICHAT

    • Histology: identified organs by tissue types.

    • Hierarchy: Cell → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism.

    • AGOSTINO BASSI

    • Produced disease in worms by injecting organic material; early step in bacteriology.

    • LOUIS PASTEUR

    • Rabies vaccine; viruses have DNA and RNA; rabies is a zoonotic infection.

  • KEY FIGURES AND CONTRIBUTIONS (select highlights)

    • RABIES & VIROLOGY

    • 1866–1902: Rabies virus is an RNA virus; family: Rhabdoviridae; genus: Lyssavirus; structure: bullet-shaped; genome: (-)\,ssRNA.

    • Pasteur weakened (attenuated) virus to develop immunity; attenuated vaccine concept.

    • GREGOR MENDEL

    • Father of Genetics; laws of inheritance; introduced Punnett Square.

    • JOSEPH LISTER

    • Proposed sepsis in surgical infections is due to airborne organisms; promoted antiseptic surgery and sterilization practices.

    • ROBERT KOCH

    • First pictures of bacilli and tubercle bacilli; bacterial shapes: cocci, bacilli, coccobacilli.

    • ELIE METCHNIKOFF

    • Described phagocytes and their role in infection defense.

    • ERNST VON BERGMANN

    • Introduced steam sterilization in surgery; autoclave; sterilization as the highest level of disinfection.

    • KARL LANDSTEINER

    • Distinguished ABO blood groups: A, B, O, AB; relative prevalence noted (O most common, then A, then B, AB least common).

    • AUGUST VON WASSERMANN

    • Developed an immunologic test for syphilis (Treponema pallidum).

    • HOWARD RICKETTS

    • Discovered Rickettsiae (organisms on the spectrum between bacteria and viruses).

    • HANs FISCHER

    • Structure of hemoglobin: tetrameric protein with 4 polypeptide chains (2 α, 2 β); each chain has a heme group with Fe$^{2+}$.

    • JONAS SALK

    • Polio vaccine; poliovirus is an RNA virus; serotypes PV1, PV2, PV3; genome: +ssRNA; transmission: oral-fecal; impact on muscular/skeletal systems.

    • JAMES WESTGARD

    • Westgard Rules for quality control in clinical laboratories.

    • BARUCH S. BLUMBERG

    • Hepatitis B vaccine; vaccination schedule known as 0-1-5 rule: 0 = first dose, 1 = second dose after 1 month, 5 = third dose 5 months after second.

    • KARY MULLIS

    • Developed Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR); detects DNA quantities with high sensitivity.

    • ANDRE VAN STEIRTEGHEM

    • Introduced Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI), a form of IVF.

    • JAMES THOMSON

    • Derived the first human stem cell line.

  • CONNECTIVE THEMES AND SIGNIFICANCE

    • Evolution from qualitative, analogous reasoning to quantitative, instrumentation-driven diagnostics.

    • Early emphasis on anatomy and histology (Bichat, Jenner, Pasteur) laid groundwork for immunology, bacteriology, and virology.

    • Development of hygiene, sterilization, and asepsis (Lister, Bergmann) drastically reduced infection-related mortality.

    • The rise of clinical laboratories and MT certification created professional standards and cross-border credential recognition (US, Philippines, etc.).

    • Ethical, philosophical, and practical implications:

    • Balance between invasive diagnostic techniques and patient safety.

    • Vaccination and immunization programs raise questions about consent, risk, and public health benefits.

    • Global exchanges of knowledge were shaped by colonial and post-colonial influences (Spain, America, Philippines).

    • Key formulas and numerical references used:

    • Density: \rho = \frac{m}{v}

    • Blood pressure unit: \text{mmHg}

    • Hemoglobin structure: Hb is a tetramer with 4 polypeptide chains (2 α, 2 β) and heme-Fe^{2+}.

    • Vaccination schedules: 0-1-5 rule for Hepatitis B vaccination.

  • NOTES ON SCIENTIFIC NAMES & STYLE

    • Scientific names should be underlined in handwritten notes or italicized when typed; Genus is capitalized, species is lowercase.

  • SUMMARY TAKEAWAYS

    • From mystical and qualitative approaches to modern, evidence-based medical technology.

    • Each era contributed a pillar: diagnostic tools (stethoscope, X-ray, ECG), therapeutic devices (Drinker respirator, heart-lung machine), and foundational science (germ theory, immunology, genetics).

    • The history spans global contexts (Europe, US, Philippines) and demonstrates how technology, education, regulation, and ethics evolved together.

  • KEY DATES (selected highlights)

    • 4 humors theory; Hippocratic medicine (ancient Greece).

    • 4 humors to uroscopy; early urine analysis.

    • 1816–1941: From stethoscope to open-heart surgery innovations.

    • 1871–1902: Microbiology, vaccines, sterility, ABO blood groups; Pasteur, Lister, Koch, Landsteiner.

    • 1927–1954: Vaccines (polio, Hep B), PCR, ICSI, stem cells.

    • 1565–1641: Early Philippine medical institutions and colonial healthcare foundations.

  • FORMATTING REMINDERS FOR EXAM PREP

    • Be able to explain how a simple physical sign (e.g., pulse, urinalysis) can be tied to broader physiological concepts (fluid balance, infection, immune response).

    • Understand the progression of laboratory medicine from observation to instrumentation to standardized certification and ethical codes.

    • Recognize major figures and their contributions, and be able to connect them to their scientific domains (histology, immunology, microbiology, genetics, virology).