How did newly developed democracy give way to dictatorship in Germany?

Germany over Time:

• First Reich = Holy Roman Empire (962-1806) = loose confederation of German states ruled by Holy Roman Emperor. Holy Roman Empire emperor also ruler of Austria

• German Confederation (1815-66): loose political association of 39 different states replacing collapsed Holy Roman Empire.

• Second Reich (Kaiser Reich, 1871-1918): Authoritarian monarchical regime. Three Kaisers during Second Reich: Wilhelm I, Frederick and Wilhelm II.

• Weimar Republic (1918-33): Democratic republic

• Third Reich (1933-45): Nazi dictatorship under Hitler

• Occupation and division of Germany (1945-1990): Military occupation by Allies led to division of Germany into; East Germany (German Democratic Republic) & West Germany (German Federal Republic)

• Reunification of Germany (1990-Present): Fall of Berlin Wall 1989 = unification of West and East Germany.

Unification of Germany

• Pre-1871 = Germany consisted of number of separate states of varying sizes.

• 1871 = Prussia; brought most German states together as new German Reich, dominated by Prussia.

• Prior to this, German-speaking people wanted separate states to unite & form strong, independent German nation-states w/ all Germans = German nationalists.

• Most nationalists/ liberals, envisaged unification of Germany & achieved by Germans themselves, via elections & popular consent.

  • Unification; military victory of Prussian Army = wars w/ Denmark (1864), Austria (1866) and France (1870-1).

• Dilemma for German nationalists → new German Reich, not the one they wanted; Didn’t include Austria + ruled by Prussian Kaiser, not govt. elects

• BUT Reich included most Germans and gave sense of national pride

The political system

• Created by Otto von Bismarck; circumstances of formation.

• Von Bismarck: Minister-President of Prussia and then Chancellor of Imperial Germany. Worked closely with Kaiser Wilhelm I and politically dominated German and European affairs until forced resignation by Kaiser Wilhelm II.

• Bismarck: Prussian aristocrat and sought to protect power of Prussia and elites by terms of new German constitution.

• King of Prussia: Kaiser of Germany, embracing 25 other different states over which he held great authority as a right.

• Position of chancellor = independent to Reichstag, he + ministers answer to Kaiser

• Democratic element = Reichstag elected by universal male suffrage (elected lower house) BUT Reichstag had little real power.

• German army respond only to Kaiser + swore allegiance to him, not govt.

  Deliberately excluded Austria.

• Bismarckian era; political system = functional, chancellor & Kaiser share political outlook.

• Kaiser Wilhelm II = autocrat + pursued aggressive militaristic policies.

  Created political tension in Reich 1871-1918; Reichstag focus on opposition challenging Kaiser.

German Economy

• German economy grew rapidly post-1871; became powerful state within Europe, leading industrial nation by 1900.

  • Economic historians describe as ‘take-off’ in sustained growth – coal, iron, heavy engineering and textiles well established and increased production.

• 1914 Germany = continental Europe’s industrial power + competed w/ Britain for supremacy. Exceeded Britain’s level of iron production, nearly caught up with coal production. Steel production up almost 90% at this time. German output of steel = double Britain.

• German economic expansion built w/ ‘old industries’ = ‘second industrial revolution’ new industries e.g. electrics, chemicals, pharmaceuticals and mechanical engineering. Daimler and Diesel cars, AEG, Siemens huge electrical business.

• Well-developed transport infrastructure = trains and trams, advanced banking system and population educated in technical skills.

German Society

• Industrialization transformed society → population grew dramatically; 1910 Germany urbanized = 60% of Germans lived in towns; Berlin was largest city with 2 million inhabitants

  • Munich, Leipzig, Hamburg, Dresden, Cologne and Breslau all exceeded half a million.

  • Rapid growth = problems of overcrowding and homelessness.

  • Unemployment not problem; most workers had poor standard of living.

• CLASS DIVIDE & INCREASED TENSIONS emergence of wealthy middle class = increasingly discontented working class.

• Germany’s leading industrialists; political stability = guarantee of future prosperity + alliance w/ Junkers, supporting Kaiser rule (increasing concern of socialism)

• Workers formed trade unions, campaigning for higher wages and better conditions.

• 1912 SPD; political reps of trade unions + working classes = largest parliamentary party in Reichstag → stood for socialism, had no political power, Junkers saw as major threat.

German Political Fragmentation

• Workers voted in Reichstag elections for SPD, campaigned for democracy and social change.

• 1912, SPD largest party in Reichstag, Germany increasingly divided – socially and politically.

• No national/broad-based party = politics fragmented (multiple parties represented multiple interest groups = growing crisis in German political system + paralysis in Reichstag)

• 1914 Germany increasingly rich but divided country = couldn’t disguise differences

  • Imperial Germany, entrenched autocracy w/ Kaiser supported by elites against emerging parliamentary democracy & liberal values.

First World War

• Outbreak of WW1, August 1914 transformed political situation temporarily

• Support of Kaiser’s declaration of war, Germans saw country as victim of ‘encirclement’ by Allied Powers and Prussia.

• Lead to truce between Reichstag parties, (anti-war) SPD voting for war budget.

• German forces perceived successful + civilians didn’t experience hardship + support of Kaiser & war effort remained high.

• Failure of military victory increased pressure for ‘total war’

• Winter 1916-7; severe food shortages + rapidly rising food prices damaged civilian morale.

• Crisis in Germany = Kaiser Wilhelm II gave political power to military leaders, General Erich Ludendorff and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg. Now a military dictatorship.

• Von Hindenburg: aristocratic landowner and professional soldier. Became hero after defeat of Russian army at battle of Tannenberg 1915. Became chief of general staff 1916. At Germany’s defeat, Hindenberg shifted blame of humiliation on politicians who took power after abdication of Kaiser (democracy).

• Ludendorff: key figure in German victories against Russian army. 1916, joined Hindenburg in engineering overthrow of Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Holweg, and became member of military committee which effectively ruled Germany until end of war. Reactionary politician, implacable opponent of New Republic established after abdication of Kaiser in November 1918.

End of War- Western and Eastern Fronts

• Entry of USA on Allied side in 1917 added to pressure on Germany.

• German forces defeating Russia, 1918 freed German soldiers on Eastern Front for offensive on Western Front.

• Western Front: Battlegrounds of Belgium and northern France (Britain + France vs Germany)

• Eastern Front: Russia vs Germany and Austria-Hungary

• Arrival of American troops in France in spring 1918 tipped balance decisively in favour of allies.

• Nov 1918, German forces retreat on Western Front + main ally Austria-Hungary defeated on other fronts.

  • Germany’s military leaders advised govt. to start peace talks with Allies.

• Military defeat = shock for German leaders and people → led to end of Kaiser rule & est. of democratic govt.

Right Wing

• German nationalists blamed democratic politicians for German defeat and humiliating peace treaty + were prepared to go to extreme lengths to overthrow W.R.

• Appalled by political freedoms allowing diverse groups to challenge social conventions and experiment with radical new ideas.

• Blamed Jews and racial minorities for Germany’s problems.

• Wanted end to democracy and replacement by authoritarian form of govt.

• For some = Kaiser return; others = new form of dictatorship of one person rule.

Left Wing

• Divisions between those who wanted to make democratic system work (e.g. SPD) and those who wanted communist revolution.

• W.R. faced many challenges but survived most  couldn’t survive erosion of support after 1929 economic crisis and undermining of powerful political and military figures with no commitment to democracy.