Physical/Biological

• Changes in an individual’s physical nature. Includes growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health.

Cognitive

• Pattern of change in mental abilities, including learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.

Psychosocial/Socioemotional

• Pattern of change in social relationships, emotions, and personality.

These domains are interconnected, affecting each other.

EIGHT PERIODS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Prenatal Period (conception to birth)

• Involves tremendous growth from a single cell to an organism with brain and behavioral capabilities in approximately 9 months.

Physical Development

• Conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means.
• Genetic endowment interacts with environmental influences.
• Basic body structures and organs form; brain growth spurt begins.
• Physical growth is the most rapid in the lifespan.
• Vulnerability to environmental influences is high.

Cognitive Development

• Abilities to learn, remember, and respond to sensory stimuli develop.

Psychosocial Development

• Fetus responds to mother’s voice and develops a preference for it.

Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3)

• A time of extreme dependence on adults. Toddlers are generally described as 1 ½ to 3 years of age.

Physical Development

• All senses and body systems operate at birth.
• Brain grows in complexity and is sensitive to environmental influence.
• Physical growth and motor skills development are rapid.

Cognitive Development

• Abilities to learn and remember are present early.
• Use of symbols and problem-solving develop by the end of the second year.
• Comprehension and use of language develop rapidly.

Psychosocial Development

• Attachments to parents and others form.
• Self-awareness develops.
• Shift from dependence toward autonomy occurs.
• Interest in other children increases.

Early Childhood (ages 3 to 6)

• Also known as the "preschool years." Growth is steady; appearance becomes slenderer and proportions more adult-like.

Physical Development

• Appetite diminishes, sleep problems are common.
• Handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills improve.

Cognitive Development

• Thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of others' perspectives grows.
• Cognitive immaturity results in illogical ideas about the world.
• Memory becomes more predictable.
• Preschool and kindergarten experiences are common.

Psychosocial Development

• Self-concept and understanding of emotions become more complex; self-esteem is global.
• Independence, initiative, self-sufficiency, and self-control increase.
• Gender identity develops.
• Play becomes more imaginative, elaborate, and social.
• Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common.
• Family is still the focus, but other children become more important.

Middle and Late Childhood (ages 6 to 11)

• Approximately corresponding to the elementary school years.

Physical Development

• Growth slows.
• Strength and athletic skills improve.
• Respiratory illnesses are common, but health is generally better than at any other time in the lifespan.

Cognitive Development

• Egocentrism diminishes; children begin to think logically but concretely.
• Memory and language skills increase.
• Cognitive gains allow children to benefit from formal schooling.
• Achievements become central in the child’s world.
• Some children show special educational needs and strengths.

Psychosocial Development

• Child is exposed to the larger world and its culture.
• Self-concept becomes more complex, affecting self-esteem.
• Coregulation reflects a gradual shift in control from parents to the child.
• Peers assume central importance.

Adolescence (ages 11 to about 20)

• Begins with rapid physical changes such as breast enlargement, pubic and facial hair growth, and voice deepening.

Physical Development

• Physical growth and other changes are rapid and profound.
• Reproductive maturity occurs.
• Major health risks arise from behavioral issues like eating disorders and drug abuse.

Cognitive Development

• Thought becomes more logical, abstract, and realistic.
• Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors.
• Education focuses on preparation for college or vocation.

Psychosocial Development

• Search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central.
• Relationships with parents are generally good.
• Peer group may exert a positive or negative influence.

Emerging & Young/Early Adulthood (ages 20 to 40)

• Developmental period that begins in the early twenties.

Physical Development

• Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly.
• Lifestyle choices influence health.

Cognitive Development

• Thought and moral judgments become more complex.
• Educational and occupational choices are made, sometimes after a period of exploration.

Psychosocial Development

• Personality traits and styles become relatively stable but may change with life stages and events.
• Establishing personal and economic independence, advancing in a career.
• Selecting a mate, learning to live with that person intimately.
• Starting a family, and rearing children.

Middle Adulthood (ages 40 to 65)

• A time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility.

Physical Development

• Slow deterioration of sensory abilities, health, stamina, and strength may begin, but individual differences are wide.
• Women experience menopause.

Cognitive Development

• Mental abilities peak; expertise and practical problem-solving skills are high.
• Creative output may decline but improve in quality.
• Career success and earning powers peak for some; burnout or career change may occur for others.

Psychosocial Development

• Sense of identity continues to develop; midlife transition may occur.
• Dual responsibilities of caring for children and parents may cause stress.
• Assisting the next generation in becoming competent, mature individuals.
• Reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
• Launching children leads to an "empty nest."

Late Adulthood (age 65 and over)

• The longest span of any period of development.

Physical Development

• Most people are healthy and active, though health and physical abilities generally decline.
• Slowing of reaction time affects some aspects of functioning.

Cognitive Development

• Most people are mentally alert.
• Intelligence and memory may deteriorate in some areas, but most people find ways to compensate.

Psychosocial Development

• Retirement from the workforce may occur and may offer new options for time use.
• Adjustment to new social roles and diminishing strength and health.
• More flexible strategies to cope with personal losses and impending death.
• Relationships with family and close friends provide important support.
• Search for meaning in life becomes central.

Theory

• An interrelated, coherent set of logically related concepts or statements that describe, explain, organize, and predict data.
• A scientific theory involves assumptions that allow for testable hypotheses.
• Theory and research are interwoven in scientific study.

Hypotheses

• Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict research outcomes.
• A good theory generates many hypotheses.
• A theory is too general for direct verification but can generate numerous hypotheses.
• Developmental science is influenced by human values and experiences.
• Deductive reasoning goes from general to specific.
• Inductive reasoning goes from specific to general.

SIX CRITERIA OF THEORY

1. Generates Research: Encourages further research and guides descriptive studies and hypothesis testing.
2. Falsifiable: Can be tested and proven false if incorrect.
3. Organizes Data: Integrates diverse information into a coherent framework.
4. Guides Action: Provides practical guidance for solving problems and inspires ideas.
5. Internally Consistent: Logically consistent within itself with clear terminology.
6. Parsimonious: Simple and straightforward compared to other theories, avoiding unnecessary complexity.

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Psychoanalytic Theories

• Focus on unconscious thoughts and emotions driving development.
• Emphasize the impact of early childhood experiences on personality and behavior.

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

• Originator of the psychoanalytic perspective.
• Proposed innate biological drives and reactive development.

Structure/Provinces of the Mind

1. Id (das Es or “it”)
   • Illogical, amoral; operates under the pleasure principle.
   • Drives to seek immediate satisfaction.
   • Anxiety: Neurotic.
2. Ego (das Ich or “I”)
   • Contact with reality; operates under the reality principle.
   • Mediates between id impulses and superego demands.
   • Anxiety: Real Danger.
3. Superego (das Uber-Ich or “Over-I”)
   • Represents moral and ideal aspects of personality.
   • Incorporates socially approved “should” and “should nots.”
   • Operates the moral principle.
   • Anxiety: Guilt/Conscience.

Psychosexual Development

• Personality develops through stages with shifting focus of pleasure.
• Fixation at stages can impact adult personality and behavior.

Stages of Human Development:

1. Prenatal Stage (Conception to Birth): Development from conception to birth, where the fetus grows and matures.
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood (0–2 years): Rapid physical growth, development of motor skills, and initial social interactions.
3. Early Childhood (3–6 years): Development of language skills, peer interactions, and imaginative play.
4. Middle Childhood (6–12 years): Cognitive growth, academic learning, and forming friendships.
5. Adolescence (12–18 years): Identity formation, emotional fluctuations, and increasing independence.
6. Early Adulthood (18–40 years): Establishing a career, forming intimate relationships, and starting a family.
7. Middle Adulthood (40–65 years): Career stability, reflecting on achievements, and mentoring others.
8. Late Adulthood (65+ years): Aging, reflecting on life, and dealing with physical changes.

Psychosexual Stages (Sigmund Freud):

1. Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure centers around the mouth; issues may include dependency or aggression.
2. Anal Stage (1-3 years): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control; traits may include obsessiveness or stubbornness.
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Awareness of gender and the Oedipus/Electra complex; affects future relationships and self-esteem.
4. Latency Stage (6-puberty): Dormant sexual feelings; focus on social skills and intellectual growth.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onward): Mature sexual interests; focus on intimate relationships.

Psychosocial Development (Erik Erikson):

1. Infancy (Birth to 2 years): Trust vs. mistrust based on caregiving consistency.
2. Early Childhood (2 to 6 years): Autonomy vs. shame and doubt.
3. Play Age (3 to 6 years): Initiative vs. guilt.
4. School Age (6 to 12 years): Industry vs. inferiority.
5. Adolescence (12 to 18 years): Identity vs. role confusion.
6. Young Adulthood (18 to 40 years): Intimacy vs. isolation.
7. Adulthood (40 to 65 years): Generativity vs. stagnation.

Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget):

• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to ~2 years): Learning through sensory experiences; development of object permanence.
• Preoperational Stage (~2 to 7 years): Use of language and symbols; egocentric thinking.
• Concrete Operational Stage (~7 to 11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events; understanding conservation.
• Formal Operational Stage (11~12 years and up): Abstract thinking and systematic problem-solving.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:

• Socially and Culturally Influenced Ego Development: Ego development influenced by social and cultural factors.
• Epigenetic Principle: Development builds upon previous stages.
• Interaction of Opposites: Conflicts between harmonious and disruptive elements at each stage.
• Basic Strengths: Ego qualities developed from resolving conflicts.
• Core Pathology: Persistent issues from insufficient conflict resolution.
• Biological and Social Influences: Both biological and social factors shape development.
• Multiplicity of Influences: Development influenced by a range of conflicts and events.
• Identity Crisis: A period of heightened vulnerability and potential for significant identity changes.

Cognitive Perspective:

• Focuses on thought processes and behavior reflecting these processes.
• Encompasses both organismic and mechanistically influenced theories.