Physical/Biological
- Changes in an individual’s physical nature. Includes growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health.
Cognitive
- Pattern of change in mental abilities, including learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
Psychosocial/Socioemotional
- Pattern of change in social relationships, emotions, and personality.
These domains are interconnected, affecting each other.
EIGHT PERIODS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal Period (conception to birth)
- Involves tremendous growth from a single cell to an organism with brain and behavioral capabilities in approximately 9 months.
Physical Development
- Conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means.
- Genetic endowment interacts with environmental influences.
- Basic body structures and organs form; brain growth spurt begins.
- Physical growth is the most rapid in the lifespan.
- Vulnerability to environmental influences is high.
Cognitive Development
- Abilities to learn, remember, and respond to sensory stimuli develop.
Psychosocial Development
- Fetus responds to mother’s voice and develops a preference for it.
Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3)
- A time of extreme dependence on adults. Toddlers are generally described as 1 ½ to 3 years of age.
Physical Development
- All senses and body systems operate at birth.
- Brain grows in complexity and is sensitive to environmental influence.
- Physical growth and motor skills development are rapid.
Cognitive Development
- Abilities to learn and remember are present early.
- Use of symbols and problem-solving develop by the end of the second year.
- Comprehension and use of language develop rapidly.
Psychosocial Development
- Attachments to parents and others form.
- Self-awareness develops.
- Shift from dependence toward autonomy occurs.
- Interest in other children increases.
Early Childhood (ages 3 to 6)
- Also known as the "preschool years." Growth is steady; appearance becomes slenderer and proportions more adult-like.
Physical Development
- Appetite diminishes, sleep problems are common.
- Handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills improve.
Cognitive Development
- Thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of others' perspectives grows.
- Cognitive immaturity results in illogical ideas about the world.
- Memory becomes more predictable.
- Preschool and kindergarten experiences are common.
Psychosocial Development
- Self-concept and understanding of emotions become more complex; self-esteem is global.
- Independence, initiative, self-sufficiency, and self-control increase.
- Gender identity develops.
- Play becomes more imaginative, elaborate, and social.
- Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common.
- Family is still the focus, but other children become more important.
Middle and Late Childhood (ages 6 to 11)
- Approximately corresponding to the elementary school years.
Physical Development
- Growth slows.
- Strength and athletic skills improve.
- Respiratory illnesses are common, but health is generally better than at any other time in the lifespan.
Cognitive Development
- Egocentrism diminishes; children begin to think logically but concretely.
- Memory and language skills increase.
- Cognitive gains allow children to benefit from formal schooling.
- Achievements become central in the child’s world.
- Some children show special educational needs and strengths.
Psychosocial Development
- Child is exposed to the larger world and its culture.
- Self-concept becomes more complex, affecting self-esteem.
- Coregulation reflects a gradual shift in control from parents to the child.
- Peers assume central importance.
Adolescence (ages 11 to about 20)
- Begins with rapid physical changes such as breast enlargement, pubic and facial hair growth, and voice deepening.
Physical Development
- Physical growth and other changes are rapid and profound.
- Reproductive maturity occurs.
- Major health risks arise from behavioral issues like eating disorders and drug abuse.
Cognitive Development
- Thought becomes more logical, abstract, and realistic.
- Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors.
- Education focuses on preparation for college or vocation.
Psychosocial Development
- Search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central.
- Relationships with parents are generally good.
- Peer group may exert a positive or negative influence.
Emerging & Young/Early Adulthood (ages 20 to 40)
- Developmental period that begins in the early twenties.
Physical Development
- Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly.
- Lifestyle choices influence health.
Cognitive Development
- Thought and moral judgments become more complex.
- Educational and occupational choices are made, sometimes after a period of exploration.
Psychosocial Development
- Personality traits and styles become relatively stable but may change with life stages and events.
- Establishing personal and economic independence, advancing in a career.
- Selecting a mate, learning to live with that person intimately.
- Starting a family, and rearing children.
Middle Adulthood (ages 40 to 65)
- A time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility.
Physical Development
- Slow deterioration of sensory abilities, health, stamina, and strength may begin, but individual differences are wide.
- Women experience menopause.
Cognitive Development
- Mental abilities peak; expertise and practical problem-solving skills are high.
- Creative output may decline but improve in quality.
- Career success and earning powers peak for some; burnout or career change may occur for others.
Psychosocial Development
- Sense of identity continues to develop; midlife transition may occur.
- Dual responsibilities of caring for children and parents may cause stress.
- Assisting the next generation in becoming competent, mature individuals.
- Reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
- Launching children leads to an "empty nest."
Late Adulthood (age 65 and over)
- The longest span of any period of development.
Physical Development
- Most people are healthy and active, though health and physical abilities generally decline.
- Slowing of reaction time affects some aspects of functioning.
Cognitive Development
- Most people are mentally alert.
- Intelligence and memory may deteriorate in some areas, but most people find ways to compensate.
Psychosocial Development
- Retirement from the workforce may occur and may offer new options for time use.
- Adjustment to new social roles and diminishing strength and health.
- More flexible strategies to cope with personal losses and impending death.
- Relationships with family and close friends provide important support.
- Search for meaning in life becomes central.
Theory
- An interrelated, coherent set of logically related concepts or statements that describe, explain, organize, and predict data.
- A scientific theory involves assumptions that allow for testable hypotheses.
- Theory and research are interwoven in scientific study.
Hypotheses
- Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict research outcomes.
- A good theory generates many hypotheses.
- A theory is too general for direct verification but can generate numerous hypotheses.
- Developmental science is influenced by human values and experiences.
- Deductive reasoning goes from general to specific.
- Inductive reasoning goes from specific to general.
SIX CRITERIA OF THEORY
- Generates Research: Encourages further research and guides descriptive studies and hypothesis testing.
- Falsifiable: Can be tested and proven false if incorrect.
- Organizes Data: Integrates diverse information into a coherent framework.
- Guides Action: Provides practical guidance for solving problems and inspires ideas.
- Internally Consistent: Logically consistent within itself with clear terminology.
- Parsimonious: Simple and straightforward compared to other theories, avoiding unnecessary complexity.
THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Psychoanalytic Theories
- Focus on unconscious thoughts and emotions driving development.
- Emphasize the impact of early childhood experiences on personality and behavior.
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
- Originator of the psychoanalytic perspective.
- Proposed innate biological drives and reactive development.
Structure/Provinces of the Mind
- Id (das Es or “it”)
- Illogical, amoral; operates under the pleasure principle.
- Drives to seek immediate satisfaction.
- Anxiety: Neurotic.
- Ego (das Ich or “I”)
- Contact with reality; operates under the reality principle.
- Mediates between id impulses and superego demands.
- Anxiety: Real Danger.
- Superego (das Uber-Ich or “Over-I”)
- Represents moral and ideal aspects of personality.
- Incorporates socially approved “should” and “should nots.”
- Operates the moral principle.
- Anxiety: Guilt/Conscience.
Psychosexual Development
- Personality develops through stages with shifting focus of pleasure.
- Fixation at stages can impact adult personality and behavior.
Stages of Human Development:
- Prenatal Stage (Conception to Birth): Development from conception to birth, where the fetus grows and matures.
- Infancy and Toddlerhood (0–2 years): Rapid physical growth, development of motor skills, and initial social interactions.
- Early Childhood (3–6 years): Development of language skills, peer interactions, and imaginative play.
- Middle Childhood (6–12 years): Cognitive growth, academic learning, and forming friendships.
- Adolescence (12–18 years): Identity formation, emotional fluctuations, and increasing independence.
- Early Adulthood (18–40 years): Establishing a career, forming intimate relationships, and starting a family.
- Middle Adulthood (40–65 years): Career stability, reflecting on achievements, and mentoring others.
- Late Adulthood (65+ years): Aging, reflecting on life, and dealing with physical changes.
Psychosexual Stages (Sigmund Freud):
- Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure centers around the mouth; issues may include dependency or aggression.
- Anal Stage (1-3 years): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control; traits may include obsessiveness or stubbornness.
- Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Awareness of gender and the Oedipus/Electra complex; affects future relationships and self-esteem.
- Latency Stage (6-puberty): Dormant sexual feelings; focus on social skills and intellectual growth.
- Genital Stage (puberty onward): Mature sexual interests; focus on intimate relationships.
Psychosocial Development (Erik Erikson):
- Infancy (Birth to 2 years): Trust vs. mistrust based on caregiving consistency.
- Early Childhood (2 to 6 years): Autonomy vs. shame and doubt.
- Play Age (3 to 6 years): Initiative vs. guilt.
- School Age (6 to 12 years): Industry vs. inferiority.
- Adolescence (12 to 18 years): Identity vs. role confusion.
- Young Adulthood (18 to 40 years): Intimacy vs. isolation.
- Adulthood (40 to 65 years): Generativity vs. stagnation.
Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget):
- Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to ~2 years): Learning through sensory experiences; development of object permanence.
- Preoperational Stage (~2 to 7 years): Use of language and symbols; egocentric thinking.
- Concrete Operational Stage (~7 to 11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events; understanding conservation.
- Formal Operational Stage (11~12 years and up): Abstract thinking and systematic problem-solving.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:
- Socially and Culturally Influenced Ego Development: Ego development influenced by social and cultural factors.
- Epigenetic Principle: Development builds upon previous stages.
- Interaction of Opposites: Conflicts between harmonious and disruptive elements at each stage.
- Basic Strengths: Ego qualities developed from resolving conflicts.
- Core Pathology: Persistent issues from insufficient conflict resolution.
- Biological and Social Influences: Both biological and social factors shape development.
- Multiplicity of Influences: Development influenced by a range of conflicts and events.
- Identity Crisis: A period of heightened vulnerability and potential for significant identity changes.
Cognitive Perspective:
- Focuses on thought processes and behavior reflecting these processes.
- Encompasses both organismic and mechanistically influenced theories.