Deontological Theories 

Kantian Ethics (Rationalist approach)

• Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who is considered one of the most important figures in Western philosophy. 

• He developed the concept of transcendental idealism and is known for his works on ethics, epistemology, and metaphysics. 

• Kant's influential works include "Critique of Pure Reason" and "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals."

The three types of categorical imperatives are:

1. Universalizability: Act only according to the maxim that you can at the same time will to become a universal law.

2. Humanity: Always treat humanity, whether in yourself or others, as an end in itself and never merely as a means.

3. Kingdom of Ends: Act as if you are a member of a kingdom of ends, where rational beings are both the authors and subjects of universal laws.

The Phenomenal realm vs the nominal realm

• Phenomenal

  • Kant's phenomenal realm refers to the world of appearances or the realm of experience.

  • According to Immanuel Kant, our knowledge is limited to the phenomenal realm, where we perceive and interpret things through our senses and mental faculties.

  • This realm is contrasted with the noumenal realm, which is inaccessible to human understanding. 

  • Kant argued that our perception of reality is shaped by our mental structures and that we can never know things as they are in themselves.

  • Associated with animals.

• Nominal

  • Kant's nominal realm refers to the realm of appearances or phenomena, as opposed to the noumenal realm of things-in-themselves. 

  • According to Kant, our knowledge is limited to the phenomenal realm, and we can never know things as they are in themselves. 

  • The nominal realm is the world as it appears to us, shaped by our senses and mental faculties. It is the realm in which we can have knowledge and make meaningful judgments.

  • Associated with Gods and angels.

Moral rationalism

• Moral law - Observable through reason and doesn’t depend on empirical/tangible evidence

• Good will - A will that acts for the sake of duty for the greatest good. Central to Kanian ethics.

• Autonomy - The capacity of an individual to make a rational choice independently.

Utilitarianism 

• Utilitarianism - an ethical theory that focuses on maximizing overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. It suggests that actions should be judged based on their consequences and the pleasure or happiness they produce. The goal is to achieve the greatest net benefit for society.

• The principle of utility

  • The choosing of the most overall happiness for the greatest number

  • Doesn’t need to follow the universal law

• Rule utilitarianism - Mill

  • Definition: a moral theory that states that an action is morally right if it conforms to a rule that, if universally followed, would lead to the greatest overall happiness or utility for everyone involved. It focuses on the consequences of following certain rules rather than the consequences of individual actions.

  • Difference from act Utilitarianism is that act Utilitarianism is for overall happiness whereas rule utilitarianism is for the given group which then is laid out into a framework with rules to follow.

• Act utilitarianism - Bentham

  • Definition: an ethical theory that states an action is morally right if it produces the greatest amount of overall happiness or utility for the greatest number of people. It focuses on the consequences of individual actions rather than following predetermined rules or principles.

  • Hedonic calculus: A concept introduced by philosopher Jeremy Bentham. It is a method of measuring pleasure and pain to determine the moral value of an action. It involves assessing the intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent of pleasure or pain that may result from an action. The goal is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain to make ethical decisions.

• Preference Utilitarianism - Singer

  • The ethical theory where they decide to maximize the desires or preferences of everyone

Virtue Ethics - Aristotle and Macintyre 

• Aristotle is widely recognized as the main philosopher associated with virtue ethics, a branch of ethical theory that emphasizes the importance of cultivating virtuous character traits to lead a good and fulfilling life. Aristotle's emphasis on the importance of character and moral development has had a lasting impact on ethical thought and continues to be studied and debated by philosophers and scholars to this day.

• Virtue Ethics is an ethical theory that focuses on the character of an individual rather than the consequences of actions. It emphasizes developing good habits and virtues to lead a moral life.

Concepts

• Eudaimonia, (translated as happiness) is the ultimate goal of a human’s life. This can be achieved by living virtuously and acting according to reason.

• Just because you do a virtuous act does not make you virtuous, it must be coming from one’s character and decided on their own.

• The Doctrine of the Mean is the way to behave morally by finding a balance between excessive behavior and deficient behavior.

• Virtue ethics are not innate but it was developed through practice and conscious effort.

• There are two types of virtues:

  • Moral virtues, which oversee how we interact with others.

  • Intellectual virtues, which guide our own understanding.

Criticisms

• Overemphasis on character traits

• Lack of clear guidelines for action, especially towards moral dilemmas

• Subjectivity in determining virtues

• Ignoring the consequences of actions

• Moral relativism as virtues would be different, varying in communities.

Alasdair MacIntyre 

• Maclntyre is a highly respected and influential philosopher who has made significant contributions to the field of virtue ethics.

• MacIntyre's work emphasizes the importance of cultivating virtuous character traits as essential components of living a good and fulfilling life. He delves into the complexities of moral philosophy and explores how virtues play a crucial role in guiding ethical decision-making. 

Ethical egoism and self interest 

• Ethical Egoism is a normative theory that suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest. It asserts that individuals ought to prioritize their own well-being above others.

Additional nuances towards ethical egoism

• The idea that humans are inherently self-interested, directing aligning to the moral actions with human nature

• The comparison between what will be the most beneficial to one's self in the long term

Criticisms to ethical egoism

• Differences in interests, in the case where pursuing self-interest would result in harm for others.

• The promotion of personal gain over collective well-being could undermine the social fabric.

Tensions from ethical egoism

• The weighing of personal needs against the personal needs of others, understanding that ethical egoism could cause a conflict with what's right.

• For example: Questing equitable distributions of medical treatments, is a rich man more deserving of treatment than a regular civilian?

• Relevant Philosophical theories that address this tension:

  • Utilitarianism

  • Kantian Ethics

Ayn Rand 

• Rand was a Russian-American writer and philosopher known for her novels promoting individualism and capitalism, such as "Atlas Shrugged" and "The Fountainhead". She is considered one of the biggest advocates for this theory. 

• Her main points are:

  • Individuals have the right to their life, liberty and property and these rights should be protected by the government. Ethical egoism is consistent in the recognition and respect for individual rights

  • Rejection of altruism. Which is the practice of selflessly acting for the benefit of others without expecting anything in return.

Meta-ethics 

• Meta-ethics is a study of ethical language, exploring the moral lesson's semantics and logical framework. This closely links sociology and psychology as well as looks into which framework an individual will use to respond to what is “right” or “wrong” while engaging in ethical debates.

Cognitivism

• Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on the internal mental processes involved in learning, such as problem-solving, memory, and understanding. It emphasizes the importance of how the brain processes information for learning to occur effectively. Cognitivists will engage in ideas that could be seen as morally correct or incorrect.

• Sam Harris

  • Arguing how there is a relationship between human values and science

  • Rock example: we don’t care about rocks and they aren’t exposed to suffering, this is a fact.

  • You are still concerned about consciousness and its changes

  • There are truths to be known about how human communities thrive and these truths often construct values.

  • Personality is a product of the brain

  • We call it religious and something religious or spiritual but it could be something that’s just stored in a different part of the brain.

Emotivism - A J Ayer

• Emotivism is a meta-ethical view that ethical statements express emotions or attitudes rather than objective truths. It suggests that moral judgments are based on feelings rather than facts.

• Contributing philosophers: A J Ayer “when two people disagree a fact, there would be a way to resolve it but when two people disagree over a judgment there isn’t a way to resolve it”

• The “Boo Hurray Theory” - a theory that some moral instances do not have a truth value but can be expressed through the feelings of the speaker (hence the boo and hurray). For example, the idea that murder is wrong is the same thing as boo murder.

Intuitionism - G E Moore

• Intuitionism is a philosophical approach that illustrates how moral truths are discovered through intuition or insight rather than through logical deduction. In this perspective, it shows that some morals are self-evident, which doesn’t require any justifications.

• Some criticisms are how subjective this theory is, it's not all cases where some morals are universally agreed upon.

Prescriptivism - R M Hare

• Prescriptivism is an approach to language that emphasizes following established rules and norms to maintain linguistic correctness and clarity. Let’s say if someone says animal cruelty is wrong to me, they are trying to enforce the same morals towards me.

Moral Judgements - A higher being 

Divine Command Theory

• Definition: The moral rightness by the commands of a divine being, the actions only morally right when God says it is.

Natural Law - Aquinas

• The idea that humans are rational, and should conform or stick by these moral values -> “natural law”. It is derived from our natural human instincts and not from values cultivated as a society. 

• 3 main rules by Aquinas: 

  • Humans must do good deeds and avoid sinning. 

  • Survival and procreation are core human values.

  • Natural laws set by the government are positive laws.

Applied Ethics 

Euthanasia

• Euthanasia is the practice of intentionally ending a life to relieve pain and suffering.

Key definitions

• Voluntary euthanasia - when a person requests (or chooses to) to end their life to relieve pain. 

• Non-voluntary euthanasia - when the permission from the patient stated unclearly. 

• Assisted Suicide - when suicide is done with the aid of another person (typically physician) 

• Involuntary euthanasia - a practice on euthanasia to a person without permission or who does not want to die. 

• Active euthanasia - is done through an action (painkillers overdose) 

• Passive euthanasia - is death bought by omission (leaving the patient to die)

Ethical Issues

• Whether the patient has the autonomy to make this personal choice of ending its own life

• The (mostly religious) views that life is valuable and a human should not end a life that God created

• The idea that euthanasia can cause a slippery slope of non-consensual euthanasia or the promotion of the idea that life isn’t valuable

Abortion

• The medical product involves terminating a pregnancy through the process of removing an embryo or fetus.

Ethical issues

• Seeing a moral balance between the rights of the fetus and the rights of the mother

• The stage of the fetus that can be considered for it to be alive -> Gives it human rights

• Whether a fetus should be granted personhood

Genetic Engineering

• The process of unnaturally altering one’s organism’s genome using biotechnologies could be towards humans, animals or plants.

Ethical issues

• The unknown long-term effects on the ecosystem and the human’s health

• To what extent did the person/animal agree to this consensus?

• Raises concerns about healthcare equality