Paper 3 notes

11) Impact of Technology on Individuals and Society

Technology and the annihilation of self (Marcel)

Marcel's "The Technology and the Decline of the Self" is an essay that explores the impact of technology on the human experience. According to Marcel, technology has the potential to diminish the sense of self and disrupt the human connection to the world. He argues that the modern technological society is increasingly focused on efficiency, productivity, and speed, which can result in a loss of individuality and a decline in our ability to connect with others. Marcel also suggests that technology can create a false sense of self, one that is based on external factors such as possessions, rather than on internal values and beliefs. Overall, Marcel's essay offers a thought-provoking perspective on the relationship between technology and the self, and encourages us to reflect on how we use technology in our own lives.

How do Society and Technology co-construct each other?

Society and technology are co-constructed in many ways. On the one hand, technology is shaped by social needs, values, and desires. For instance, social expectations around communication, entertainment, and convenience drive the development of new technologies like smartphones, social media, and streaming services. On the other hand, technology also influences society in significant ways, transforming the way we work, communicate, and live our lives. For example, the rise of automation and artificial intelligence is changing the nature of work, while social media platforms are reshaping how we form relationships and interact with one another. Overall, society and technology are constantly influencing one another in a feedback loop, shaping the way we live our lives. Does that help?

Is Technology a means to an end or an end in itself?

"As an AI assistant, I don't have a personal opinion, but I can tell you that technology can be both a means to an end and an end in itself. At its core, technology is a tool that we use to accomplish tasks or solve problems, which makes it a means to an end. However, for some people, the use and exploration of technology is a passion and interest in itself, making it an end in itself. It ultimately depends on the individual and their relationship with technology".

Have recent technological developments fundamentally changed human endeavour and human existence?

"Recent technological developments have certainly had a significant impact on human endeavor and existence. With the rise of the Internet and mobile devices, people now have access to vast amounts of information and can connect with others from around the world instantaneously. This has revolutionized the way we communicate, learn, and work. In addition, advances in fields such as artificial intelligence, robotics, and biotech have the potential to transform many aspects of our lives, including healthcare, transportation, and entertainment. These technologies have the power to create new opportunities and solve some of the world's most pressing problems. However, they also raise ethical and societal questions that we must consider as we move forward".

How does technology determine the social and economic structure of society according to Karl Marx?

Karl Marx believed that technology played a significant role in shaping the social and economic structure of society. He argued that changes in technology resulted in changes in the way society was organized and how wealth was distributed. Marx believed that technology was both a product of and a driving force behind economic development.

In Marx's view, technological advancements lead to increases in productivity, which in turn enable capitalists to extract more profits from workers. The result is a widening gap between the rich and the poor, leading to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few. Marx argued that technology could be harnessed for the benefit of all, rather than just the capitalists, through the establishment of a socialist society. Overall, Marx saw technology as a powerful force that could either perpetuate or challenge the existing social and economic structures of society.

12) Biotechnology, Robotics, Information and Communication Technology

Driving Questions:

• 1 How might technology evolve in the future? (very general question but interesting nevertheless).
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• 2 How will robots shape our future (include AI)?
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• 3 Is it smart to create something that is overwhelmingly more intelligent than ourselves?
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• 4 What are the benefits and dangers of BioTech?
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• 5 What ethical and philosophical issues are likely to arise from the rise of AI, BioTech and Robotics?

13) Environmental Challenges and Degradation

Key Questions/Ideas

Do humans have a moral obligation to protect the natural environment?

We only have one planet, and it's important that we do our part to preserve it. Taking care of the environment benefits not only ourselves, but also the plants and animals that inhabit our world. There are many ways we can do this, including reducing our carbon footprint by using less energy, recycling, and being mindful of our resource consumption.

The relationship between nature and human beings: stewardship, dependence, domination

Stewardship refers to the responsible management and protection of resources or assets. This can include financial resources, natural resources, or even people. The goal of stewardship is to ensure that these resources are used wisely and sustainably, in a way that benefits both present and future generations.

Dependence in the environment refers to the relationship between living organisms and their surroundings. This relationship involves a complex network of interactions and interdependencies between various species and their habitats. For example, plants depend on sunlight, water, and nutrients from the soil to grow, while animals depend on plants and other animals for food, shelter, and other resources. In turn, these relationships can have a significant impact on the health and well-being of entire ecosystems.

Domination in the environment generally refers to a situation where one species or group of species has a disproportionate influence on the ecosystem, often to the detriment of other species or the ecosystem as a whole. It can occur naturally or as a result of human activity, and may involve competition for resources, predation, or other factors. However, it's important to note that balance and diversity are key components of a healthy ecosystem, and domination can upset that delicate equilibrium.

14) Conservation and the environment

The nine major approaches to the world around us in environmental philosophy

• Anthropocentrism: this approach considers humans as the most important entity in the world, and nature exists only to serve human needs.

• Biocentrism: this approach considers all living things as equally important in the world, and nature has inherent value.

• Ecocentrism: this approach considers entire ecosystems as equally important in the world, and nature has intrinsic value.

• Deep Ecology: a variation of ecocentrism that proposes the idea that humans are only one part of a larger ecosystem and must integrate themselves into it.

• Ecofeminism: this approach links environmental degradation and gender oppression and advocates for the empowerment of women and nature.

• Social Ecology: this approach emphasizes the relationship between social and environmental issues and suggests that society must be restructured to address environmental problems.

• Environmental pragmatism: this approach seeks practical solutions to environmental problems through a scientific, rather than a philosophical, approach.

• Environmental Justice: this approach advocates for the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens among all people.

• Postmodernism: this approach challenges traditional environmental philosophy and suggests no single approach can dominate, instead advocating

Ahimsa

• Definition: Ahimsa means nonviolence or "absence of injury" and is a key ethical principle in yoga.

• Historical Roots: Originates from the Vedas, ancient Indian texts, and is foundational in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

• Gandhi's Influence: Gandhi is noted for embodying Ahimsa, emphasizing that it starts in personal relationships.

• Challenges of Practice: Practicing Ahimsa can be difficult; harm can occur physically, verbally, or through thoughts.

• Interconnectedness of Harm: All forms of harm are linked; inflicting pain on others also affects the inflictor.

• Mindful Reflection: Encourages pausing and empathizing to practice Ahimsa effectively.

• Practical Interpretations: Includes self-kindness, community respect, and ethical consumerism.

• Call to Action: Encourages individuals to recognize and expand their understanding of Ahimsa in their lives and communities.

The Tao of Nature

The article "The Tao of Nature" emphasizes the deep connection between humanity and nature, advocating for a return to understanding ourselves as part of the natural world. It reflects on ancient Taoist philosophy, which views nature as a teacher that offers insights into life and change.

Key points include:

• Interconnectedness: All things in nature are mutually involved, and understanding this synergy helps us connect with the essence of life, known as Tao.

• Transformative Essence (Te): Each being possesses a transformative quality that can be realized through an authentic relationship with nature.

• Personal Growth: Embracing change allows individuals to remain authentic and open to growth, making them masters of their experiences.

• Nature's Role: Unlike Western perspectives that often anthropomorphize nature, Taoism sees nature as a guide for understanding the human condition.

• Literary Influences: The I Ching and Tao te Ching are highlighted as significant texts that explore natural phenomena and the importance of following the Way (Tao).

15) Deep ecology, Shallow ecology and Anthropocentrism

The Gaia Hypothesis (eco-holism)

James Lovelock argues that we are part of planet earth and not masters of it. He argued for the existence of 'Gaia'

• a self-regulating living system which controls the earth and keeps everything constant. Lovelock says that Gaia keeps the planet at a constant state of management, and lists two examples to support this:

• if there was any less than 12% oxygen in the atmosphere, fires couldn't burn

• the salt level in seas has remained at 3.4% for millions of years
  Lovelock says we shouldn't be anthropocentric (focussing solely on ourselves) but biocentric, and says that Gaia restores balance to the imbalance caused by humans.
  The earth is, Lovelock states, a holistic system (a 'whole'). Gaia possesses the power to change everything. 

Deep Ecology


Deep ecologists argue that human life is just one part of the ecosphere. Arne Naess is a big name in terms of deep ecology, and refers to it as "a philosophy of ecological harmony"  


Leopold also comes along and says that something is good if it preserves"integrity, stability and beauty"


Naess argues that every living thing has a right to flourish. He criticises the Christian view of dominion, simply calling it"arrogant" George Sessions also argues for deep ecology and puts forward an 8-point manifesto in favour of it. The points are as follows:

all life has intrinsic value diversity creates the well-being of all humans must protect this responsibility impact on the environment is excessive lifestyle and population change are critical impact must be reduced political and economic systems must change who accept the above must commit to peaceful change
Obviously not all of these points need to be remembered for the exam. The main ones are probably 1 (which you can argue against), 4, 6 and 8.

Peter Singer, despite coming more broadly under the shallow ecology umbrella, argues that World Heritage wilderness should be preserved, which is a view similar to that of a deep ecologist. He says there is beauty in certain areas of wilderness which should be cared for.


Deep ecologists do, however, accept that the richness and diversity of the planet can be reduced if it is vital to human needs.


Of course, deep ecology isn't without its weaknesses. The main ones are as follows:

• for something to have rights, it must have reasons for existence

• do plants have their own reason for existence? Our reason for their existence is for oxygen and food

• but do they have reasons of their own?

• deep ecology is arguably misanthropic (human-hating) and discourages a growing population 

• however, deep ecologists would argue that by decreasing the population, the value of each individual increases

if followed to the extreme, deep ecology could lead to the destruction of the human race

• this isn't. great weakness

• attack it in an exam for being hyperbolic/far-fetched

Earth summits such as Kyoto have proved not to be very effective, raising questions about the practicality of Sessions' 8-point manifesto
Shallow Ecology


Shallow ecology is a little more anthropocentric. Shallow ecologists argue that the environment is a means for human flourishing; however, they accept that the environment provides happiness and benefits humanity, so it must be preserved. 

Animals and plants have instrumental value alone

•  that is to say their only value is to help humanity flourish. This is the main reason why Peter Singer isn't necessarily a shallow ecologist (he describes himself as in-between deep and shallow); Singer, as a benefit utilitarian, argues that animals have intrinsic value.
  Shallow ecologists argue that something is only valuable if we perceive it to be so. 

Kant may have an issue with shallow ecology; he may argue that using the environment as a means for human flourishing is an example of using means to an end.

Peter Singer


Singer has a lot to say on the environment, but deserves his own section seeing as he doesn't properly fit into either deep or shallow ecology...

As he rattles on about in AS ethics, Singer is against speciesism because "speciesism draws an arbitrary line." He cites the example of animal experimentation for cosmetics etc. and argues that animals suffer pain for relatively small human benefit.
He uses the example of an antelope and human caught in a trap. If you're walking in the woods with your close friend, Singer supposes, and your friend gets caught in an animal trap, you would obviously go to help him/her. However, if you notice there is also a nearby antelope caught in the trap, who should you help? Many of us would be inclined to help our friend, but Singer would free the antelope first. He argues that humans can reason, so you'd be able to reassure your friend you're going to help them first, whereas the antelope cannot reason and so would arguably suffer more pain as a sentient being.

He simply sums up his beliefs in an easy-to-remember quote:
"I don't think ethics is only for humans."Rather than being anthropocentric, it is perhaps more accurate to describe Singer as sentient being centred.

Singer also criticises the Christian approach towards the environment. He argues that the concept of dominion has harmed the world significantly, but does not criticise the later view of stewardship.

Singer is also up for preserving wilderness so long as it maximises human welfare.

Christianity

There are several different Christian views on the environment...

St. Francis of Assisi spoke of creation spirituality

•  the notion that we are at one with nature. Francis felt so at one with nature that he referred to the moon as 'sister' and the sun as 'brother'. He loved nature that much he even spoke to trees (apparently they get quite lonely).

Matthew Fox is similar, and argues for panentheism. Panentheism is the belief that God is within everything. When anything alters, Fox argues, God also alters.

Fox criticised Augustine's views on natural evil and states that the suffering of nature is present because mankind is alienated from nature.

In order to breach the gap between humanity and nature, Fox said we should 'befriend' nature and treat it as a gift. He also said we should befriend darkness, by which he meant non-human pain

• the pain of animals, plants and the earth. He also urged us to befriend the divine potential within ourselves.

Osborne argued that we need to "de-divine" nature and take God out of it as a concept. He advocated dominion but stated that dominion isn't the same as domination. Osborne believed mankind should have a covenant (contract) with nature.

He also spoke of concurrence: the belief that God works with every event without compromising human freedom. He deduced that we should participate with God in the development of the natural world.


The Church of England states that we should do the following to help the environment:

• be economic in our use of energy resources

• control damage done to flora and fauna (plants and animals)

• minimise population (a similarity to deep ecology) in order to reach sustainable harmony

A more unusual Biblical theory on the environment is Rapture Theology

•  the belief that if Jesus will rise again and the world will be destroyed, it's pointless worrying about the environment. 

Kantian ethics


Kant has made his views quite clear, saying
"animals are there merely as a means to an end."We should, of course, treat everything as an end in itself. This also applies to humans destroying the environment for our own benefit

• Kant wouldn't agree.

Similarly, modern Kantian Stephen Clark argues that respect for humans should be extended to respecting animals too.

Utilitarianism

Singer's benefit utilitarian views have already been covered, and form the main bulk of how you can discuss utilitarianism and the environment.

Act utiliarian Jeremy Bentham challenges the suffering of animals, asking
"not can they reason, nor can they talk but can they suffer?"Utilitarian professor Steven Rose also criticises head transplantation, bluntly stating
"I cannot see any medical grounds for doing this."

Natural Law

The following quotes pretty much sums up Aquinas' whole argument:
"it matters not how man behaves to animals.""the life of animals and plants is preserved not for themselves but for men."

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics, being agent-centred, often takes the shallow ecology view.

Aristotle could be described as being something of a shallow ecologist and sees the value of animals as instrumental alone, stating

"natures has made all animals for the sake of men."


Business/environment

Environmental ethics often goes hand-in-hand with business ethics.

Mentioning earth summits, sustainability and corporate social responsibility are good ideas. Examples from the business side of the course may come in handy. You can also bring in how virtue ethics/Christian/Kantian/utilitarian approaches to business may affect the environment.

Introduction to Hingsa Principle

The Hingsa principle is a key concept in Jainism, which emphasizes the importance of non-violence and harmony with nature. This principle is also reflected in the work of Tiruvallu, who promotes the idea of living in harmony with the environment and all living beings.

Key Components of Hingsa Principle

The Hingsa principle has several key components, including:

• Integrity: This refers to the character of an individual and their actions in relation to the environment. It involves being honest and responsible in one's interactions with nature.

• Restraint: This involves appreciating the nature of all living beings and not reacting to their natural behaviors with aggression or violence.

• Thankfulness: This involves being grateful for the environment and all the resources it provides, and recognizing the importance of preserving and protecting it.

Definition of Key Terms

Integrity: The quality of being honest and responsible in one's actions and interactions with the environment. Restraint: The ability to appreciate and respect the nature of all living beings, and to refrain from reacting to their natural behaviors with aggression or violence. Thankfulness: The feeling of gratitude and appreciation for the environment and all the resources it provides.

Examples of Hingsa Principle in Action

The following table illustrates examples of the Hingsa principle in action:

Hospitality and the Environment

Hospitality in the context of the environment refers to the act of caring for and providing for the natural world. This involves:

• Recognizing the importance of preserving and protecting the environment

• Taking actions to reduce harm and promote sustainability

• Showing appreciation and gratitude for the resources provided by the environment

Importance of Hingsa Principle

The Hingsa principle is essential for promoting harmony with nature and preserving the environment. By adopting this principle, individuals can:

• Reduce harm to the environment and other living beings

• Promote sustainability and conservation

• Cultivate a sense of gratitude and appreciation for the natural world## Introduction to Tiruvalluva The philosophy of Tiruvalluva emphasizes the importance of living in harmony with the environment and promoting virtues such as hospitality, kindness, and generosity. This philosophy is based on the idea of treating all living beings with respect and compassion.

Key Virtues

The key virtues of Tiruvalluva can be summarized as follows:

• Hospitality: allowing plants and animals to thrive in their natural environment

• Kindness: meeting aggression with non-aggression and violence with non-violence

• Generosity: showing generosity of spirit towards all living beings

• Duty: protecting the environment and all living beings

• Bravery: standing up for what is right and protecting the environment and living beings from harm

Definition of Key Terms

Hospitality refers to the act of welcoming and providing a safe space for all living beings, including plants and animals, to thrive. Kindness is the quality of being gentle, considerate, and compassionate towards all living beings. Generosity is the willingness to give and share with others, including the environment and all living beings.

Examples of Tiruvalluva in Practice

The following table illustrates examples of Tiruvalluva in practice:

Legacy of Tiruvalluva

The philosophy of Tiruvalluva has been applied in various areas, including:

• India: where it has been influential in shaping the country's environmental and social policies

• Jainism: where it has been incorporated into the religion's teachings on non-violence and compassion

• Hinduism: where it has been influential in shaping the religion's teachings on the importance of living in harmony with the environment

Critique of Tiruvalluva

Tiruvalluva can be seen as a pacifist philosophy, as it emphasizes the importance of meeting aggression with non-aggression. However, it also recognizes the importance of standing up for what is right and protecting the environment and living beings from harm. This can be seen as a middle ground approach, which seeks to balance the need for non-violence with the need for action in the face of harm or injustice.