phonetics and phonology - zaliczenie (copy)

TYPES OF PHONETICS:

• ARTICULATORY - it studies the production of speech sounds by the human vocal apparatus, including the movement and coordination of the articulatory organs (like the tongue, lips, teeth, and vocal cords); it examines how different sounds are formed and classified based on the physical configuration and motions of the speech organs

• ACOUSTIC - it focuses on the physical properties of speech sounds as they travel through the air; it examines the frequency, amplitude, and duration of sound waves produced by the vocal apparatus, studying how these properties are related to the perception of speech sounds by listeners

• AUDITIVE - it deals with the perception and processing of speech sounds by the human auditory system; it investigates how speech sounds are heard, processed, and interpreted by the ear and brain, focusing on aspects like pitch, loudness, and speech sound recognition

TYPES OF PHONOLOGY:

• SEGMENTAL - studies individual speech sounds (consonants and vowels) and how they combine to form words

• SUPRASEGMENTAL - examines features that affect larger speech units, like intonation, stress, and pitch, which convey meaning beyond individual sounds

THE ELEMENTS OF SYLLABLE STRUCTURE:

• ONSET - the initial consonant or consonant cluster of a syllable, occurring before the vowel

• NUCLEUS - the central part of a syllable, typically a vowel, which is essential for the syllable’s structure

• CODA - the final consonant or consonant cluster of a syllable, occurring after the vowel

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BE vs. AmE:

• RHOTICITY

  • GENERAL AMERICAN (GA) is a rhotic accent, meaning that the "r" sound is pronounced in all positions, including at the end of words or syllables (e.g., car, hard)

  • BRITISH ENGLISH (BE), especially RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION (RP), is non-rhotic, meaning that the "r" is generally not pronounced when it appears at the end of a syllable or word, as in car (pronounced /kɑː/ instead of /kɑr/). The "r" sound only appears if it is followed by a vowel sound, such as in red

• YOD-DROPPING

  • IN AmE YOD IS DROPPED after the following consonants:

    • [d] as in duty ([ˈduːti])

    • [t] as in tune ([tuːn])

    • [s] as in consume ([kənˈsuːm])

    • [n] as in new ([nuː])

• FLAPPING

  • occurs in AmE: flapping of /t, d/ to /ɾ/, e.g. writer /raiɾər/

• T-DROPPING

  • common in BE (replacing the /t/ with a glottal stop [ʔ])

  • rare in AmE (usually flapped [ɾ] or glottalized [ʔ]); often occurs in connected speech, especially in phrases like want to → wanna or got to → gotta

• SILENT LETTERS - generally the same

• VOWELS

  • æ (AmE) - a (BE): ˈsɑːmpl → ˈsæmpl; kɑːnt → kænt; rɑːntʃ → ræntʃ; dɑːns → dæns (BUT: cat, pal, cab, drag, crass, gas, lass, mass, astronaut, pastel, hath, maths, athlete, decathlon, ant, banter, scant, mantle, trample, ample → æ)

  • a (AmE) - ɒ (BE): box, clock, cost, gone, got, job - bɒks → bɑːks; klɒk → klɑːk

  • oʊ (AmE) - əʊ (BE): go, no, crow, cocoa, component, promotion, romantic - ɡəʊ → ɡoʊ; kəmˈpəʊnənt → kəmˈpoʊnənt

  • aɪ (AmE) - ɪ (BE): ˈdɪnəsti → ˈdaɪnəsti; ˈprɪvəsi → ˈpraɪvəsi; ˈvɪtəmɪn → ˈvaɪtəmɪn; ˌɔːrɡənaɪˈzeɪʃən → ˌɔːɡənɪˈzeɪʃən (the second-to-last syllable)

  • e (AmE) - i: (BE): ˈiːpɒk → ˈepək (evolution, febrile, predecessor)

  • i: (AmE) - e (BE): ˈzebrə → ˈziːbrə (cretin, leisure, medieval)

• STRESS PATTERN

  • first-syllable stress in RP but second-syllable stress in GA: adult, brochure, cafe, chalet, chauffeur [ˈʃəʊfə(r) → ʃoʊˈfɜːr], debris, garage, ballet, frontier, bourgeois [ˈbʊəʒwɑː → ˌbʊrˈʒwɑː], cabaret [ˈkæbəreɪ → ˌkæbəˈreɪ]

  • second-syllable stress in RP but last-syllable stress in GA: attache, fiance(e)

  • last-syllable stress in RP but first-syllable stress in GA: address, cigarette, magazine

  • more syllable reduction in multisyllabic words in BE – tendency to retain syllables and hence – full vowels in AmE

    • -ary, -ery, -ory: necessary [ˈnesəsəri → ˈnesəseri]; territory [ˈterətri → ˈterətɔːri]; customary [ˈkʌstəməri → ˈkʌstəmeri]

STRONG FORMS:

• sentence-final position: I like that. – I hope that she will. Chips are what I'm fond of. - I'm fond of chips.

• contrast: The letter's from him, not to him. – Try to stop. I'm home from work.

• emphasis: You must give me more money. - You must try harder.

• quote: You shouldn't put "and" at the end of a sentence. – Come and see.

ALLOPHONES - contextual variants of a phoneme

• ASPIRATED PLOSIVES

  • voiceless stops are aspirated at the beginning of a stressed syllable: pill, Peter, suppose, till, kill, court → [p^h], [t^h], [k^h]

• CLEAR AND DARK "l"

  • dark "l" occurs before a consonant (belt), before /w/ (cool water), when the /l/ is syllabic (little, apples), word-finally (ball)

    Note: before /j/ the /l/ is clear

• TYPES OF PLOSION

  • lack of plosion - stops have no plosion before a stop or an affricate: apt [æp̚t] and rubbed [rʌb̚d]

  • nasal plosion - stops have a nasal plosion before nasals: catnip [ˈkætⁿnɪp]

  • lateral plosion - /t d/ have a lateral plosion before /l/: spotless [ˈspɒtˡlɨs]

• SYLLABIC CONSONANTS

  • consonants that function as the nucleus of a syllable, a role typically reserved for vowels

    • nasals (/m̩/ as in prism [ˈprɪz.m̩], /n̩/ as in button [ˈbʌt̬n̩])

    • liquids (/l̩/ as in bottle [ˈbɒtl̩], /r̩/ as in worker [ˈwɜrkər] (in non-rhotic dialects)

• ALLOPHONES OF ''t''

  • [t]: the standard /t/, pronounced with the tip of the tongue at the alveolar ridge (e.g., top, cat)

  • [tʰ]: aspirated /t/ (e.g., time, take)

  • [ʔ]: Glottal stop, often used in casual speech or dialects (e.g., butter or bottle in some accents)

  • [t̬]: flap /t/ (e.g., butter, better, water in American English)

  • [t̠]: dentalized /t/, occurs before dental sounds (e.g., that thing)

  • [tʃ]: affricated /t/ (e.g., nature, picture)

• sonorants (consonants and semivowels) are devoiced in the position of aspiration, that is, after a voiceless stop which stands at the beginning of a stressed syllable: play, twin, cue → [pʰl̥eɪ, tʰw̥ɪn, kʰj̥u]

  /r/ is always devoiced after /t/

ARTICULATORY DESCRIPTION OF CONSONANTS

CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS

DIPTHONGS

• centring - ending in /ə/: ɪə (ear), eə (air), ʊə (pure)

• closing - ending in /ɪ/ or /ʊ/: eɪ (say), aɪ (buy), ɔɪ (boy), əʊ (so), aʊ (now)

WORD STRESS - GENERAL RULES

• MONOSYLLABIC WORDS: heart, face, gó, please, friend

• TWO-SYLLABLE NATIVE WORDS - stressed syllable followed by unstressed syllable: bróther, building, córner, dinner, garden, heaven, hónor, iron, ócean, person, river, weather, table, spirit, yellow, fishes, hóuses, laughing, started, smóother, biggest, truly

• EXTENSIONS OF THE ABOVE PATTERN - words with more than 2 syllables with the stress on the first syllable: article, enemy, beautiful, dangerous, liberal, industry

• PREFIXES ARE UNSTRESSED (also dead prefixes):

  • a- (abóut, alive)

  • be- (believe, begin)

  • con- (contról, contain)

  • de- (defeat, detain)

  • ex- (except, explain)

  • for- (forget, forgive)

  • in- (include, indeed)

  • pre- (prepare, pretend)

  • re- (receive, recórd)

  • with- (withstand, withdraw)

  Note: except no- (nówhere, nóthing, nóbody, nónsense)

• WORD-CLASS PAIRS - adjectives + nouns (1st syllable) vs. verbs (2nd syllable):

  • abduct, conduct, contrast, desert, object, insult, permit, record, protest, rebel

• STRESS-CARRYING SUFIXES - akcent na sylabę z sufiksem:

  • -ain (entertain)

  • -ee (refugee)

  • -eer (mountaineer)

  • -ese (Portugese)

  • -ette (cigarette)

  • -esque (picturesque)

• NEUTRAL SUFIXES: -able, -age, -al, -en, -ful, -ing, -ish, -like, -less,
  -ly, -ment, -ness, -ous, -fy, -wise, -y

• STRESS-MOVING SUFIXES - akcent na sylabę przed sufiksem:

  • advantage -ous

  • photo -graphy

  • proverb -ial

  • injur -ious

  • tranquil -ity

  • climat -ic

  • reflex -ive

  • embryo -logy

• COMPOUND WORDS:

  • first element adjectival, stress on second item (loudspeaker, bad-tempered)

  • first element nominal, stress on first item (typewriter, car-ferry)

  • mixture of two adjectives, stress on second item (red-blooded); mixture of two nouns, stress on first item (gunman)