Monarchs, Intellectuals, Religious and Political Leaders

The Renaissance

• Italian Renaissance

  • Petrarch: Often called the "father of Humanism," he was a key figure in the recovery of classical texts.

  • Machiavelli: Author of The Prince, a treatise on how to acquire and maintain political power, often seen as advocating for ruthless and pragmatic tactics.

  • Lorenzo de Medici: A powerful and influential patron of the arts and a ruler of Florence during the Renaissance.

• Northern Renaissance

  • Thomas More: English humanist and author of Utopia, a work describing an ideal society.

  • Desiderius Erasmus: Dutch humanist who advocated for religious reform and the study of classical texts.

The "New Monarchs"

• England

  • Henry VII: The first Tudor monarch, known for establishing a strong central government and restoring stability after the Wars of the Roses.

• Spain

  • Ferdinand and Isabella: The Catholic Monarchs of Spain, who unified the country, sponsored Columbus's voyages, and initiated the Spanish Inquisition.

The Age of Exploration

• Prince Henry the Navigator: Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages of exploration along the African coast, promoting navigation and trade.

• Vasco da Gama: Portuguese explorer who discovered a sea route to India, opening up new trade opportunities for Europe.

• Christopher Columbus: Explorer who sailed west across the Atlantic and "discovered" the Americas, opening up the New World to European colonization.

The Reformation

• Key Figures

  • Johann Tetzel: A Dominican friar whose sale of indulgences sparked Martin Luther's protests.

  • Martin Luther: German theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses.

  • Pope Leo X: The Pope who excommunicated Martin Luther and condemned his teachings.

  • Charles V (HR Emperor): The Holy Roman Emperor who opposed the Reformation and tried to maintain religious unity in his empire.

  • John Calvin: French theologian who developed Calvinism, a major branch of Protestantism emphasizing predestination.

  • Ulrich Zwingli: Swiss reformer who advocated for similar ideas to Luther but differed on the Eucharist.

• English Reformation

  • Henry VIII: King of England who broke with the Catholic Church and established the Church of England.

  • Catherine of Aragon: Henry VIII's first wife, whose divorce led to the English Reformation.

  • Anne Boleyn: Henry VIII's second wife, whose marriage further accelerated the English Reformation.

  • Edward VI: Henry VIII's son, who continued the Protestant reforms in England.

  • Elizabeth I: Queen of England who established a moderate Protestant Church and presided over a period of great cultural and political achievement.

  • Mary I: Queen of England who attempted to restore Catholicism, earning the nickname "Bloody Mary."

  • Thomas Cranmer: Archbishop of Canterbury who supported the English Reformation and helped shape the Church of England.

  • John Knox: Scottish reformer who founded Presbyterianism in Scotland.

• Counter-Reformation

  • Ignatius Loyola: Founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), a Catholic order dedicated to combating the spread of Protestantism.

  • Theresa of Avila: Spanish mystic and reformer who helped revitalize the Catholic Church.

Wars of Religion

• Key Figures

  • Catherine de Medici: Influential French queen who played a key role in the Wars of Religion.

  • Ferdinand II (HR Emperor): Holy Roman Emperor whose attempts to suppress Protestantism led to the Thirty Years' War.

  • Cardinal Richelieu: French statesman who strengthened the monarchy and intervened in the Thirty Years' War.

  • Gustavus Adolphus: King of Sweden who led his country to military success in the Thirty Years' War.

  • Henry IV of France: King of France who issued the Edict of Nantes, granting religious toleration to Protestants.

The Age of Absolutism

• Key Monarchs and Statesmen

  • Louis XIV: The "Sun King" of France, known for his absolute rule, lavish court, and ambitious foreign policy.

  • Cardinal Mazarin: Successor to Richelieu, who helped consolidate royal power in France during Louis XIV's minority.

  • Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Louis XIV's finance minister, who implemented mercantilist policies to strengthen the French economy.

  • Peter the Great: Tsar of Russia who Westernized the country and expanded its territory.

  • Frederick William, the Great Elector: Ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia who laid the foundation for the future kingdom of Prussia.

  • Maria Theresa (Austria): Habsburg empress who ruled Austria and implemented reforms to strengthen the state.

English Constitutionalism

• The Stuarts

  • James I: The first Stuart king of England, who clashed with Parliament over issues of taxation and royal power.

  • Charles I: King of England whose conflicts with Parliament led to the English Civil War; he was eventually executed.

  • Charles II: King of England who restored the monarchy after the Interregnum.

  • James II: King of England who was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution due to his Catholic beliefs and absolutist tendencies.

  • Oliver Cromwell: Lord Protector of England during the Interregnum.

  • John Locke: English philosopher who advocated for natural rights and limited government.

  • William III and Mary II: Joint monarchs who came to power in the Glorious Revolution and accepted the English Bill of Rights.

  • Queen Anne: The last Stuart monarch of England.

Philosophers

• Key Thinkers

  • Jacques Bossuet: French bishop and theologian who advocated for the divine right of kings.

  • Jean Bodin: French political philosopher who argued for absolute sovereignty.

  • Thomas Hobbes: English philosopher who argued for a strong, centralized government in Leviathan.

  • John Locke: English philosopher who advocated for natural rights, limited government, and the social contract.

The Scientific Revolution

• Key Figures

  • Copernicus: Astronomer who proposed the heliocentric theory, challenging the long-held geocentric view of the universe.

  • Galileo: Italian astronomer and physicist who provided further evidence for the heliocentric theory and developed the laws of motion.

  • Francis Bacon: English philosopher who advocated for the scientific method and empirical observation.

  • Isaac Newton: English physicist and mathematician who developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

  • René Descartes: French philosopher and mathematician who emphasized reason and doubt in his philosophical system.

The Enlightenment

• Key Thinkers

  • Montesquieu: French political philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers in government.

  • Voltaire: French writer and philosopher who advocated for religious toleration, freedom of speech, and reason.

  • Denis Diderot: French philosopher and writer who was the chief editor of the Encyclopédie.

  • David Hume: Scottish philosopher who emphasized empiricism and skepticism.

  • Immanuel Kant: German philosopher who synthesized rationalism and empiricism in his philosophical system.

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Swiss philosopher who advocated for popular sovereignty and the social contract.

Enlightened Absolutism

• Key Monarchs

  • Catherine the Great (Russia): Russian empress who implemented some Enlightenment ideas while maintaining autocratic rule.

  • Frederick the Great (Prussia): Prussian king who embraced Enlightenment ideas and implemented reforms to improve the lives of his subjects.

  • Joseph II (Austria): Austrian emperor who implemented radical reforms based on Enlightenment principles.

The French Revolution and Napoleon

• Key Figures

  • Louis XVI: King of France during the French Revolution, who was eventually executed.

  • Marie Antoinette: Queen of France during the French Revolution, who was also executed.

  • Edmund Burke: British statesman and philosopher who criticized the French Revolution.

  • Mary Wollstonecraft: British writer and feminist who advocated for women's rights during