Great Powers in the Middle East

/Aims of Great Powers in the Middle East

What were Britain’s main aims in the Middle East?

• Maintain control of strategic trade routes, particularly the Suez Canal.

• Secure access to oil supplies in the Persian Gulf.

• Support the establishment of a Jewish homeland (not a state) as set out in the Balfour Declaration (1917) and League of Nations mandate (1920).

• Protect the rights of non-Jews already living in Palestine.

• Ensure imperial security by controlling or influencing friendly governments in the region.

What were France’s main aims in the Middle East?

• Maintain direct colonial control over Syria and Lebanon.

• Oppose any form of independence movements within its mandates.

• Extend imperial influence in the Middle East.

• Secure greater access to oil resources in the region.

What were the USA’s main aims in the Middle East?

• Prevent the spread of Soviet communism in the region.

• Expand capitalist influence and free-market economics.

• Support Israel and the Zionist cause, particularly from the 1970s onwards.

• Maintain good relations with Arab oil-producing states to prevent them from turning to the Soviet Union.

• Ensure oil security and military dominance in the region.

• Combat terrorism post-9/11, leading to military interventions in Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003).

What were the USSR’s main aims in the Middle East?

• Expand Soviet communism and influence in the region.

• Challenge Western dominance and imperialism.

• Gain regional allies such as Egypt, Syria, and Iraq.

• Support Arab nationalist movements against Western-backed regimes.

• Balance between supporting Arab allies and avoiding direct military confrontation with the USA.

Policies of Great Powers in the Middle East

What was Britain’s policy towards its mandates in the Middle East?

• Mandate System (1920s-30s): Directly controlled Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan under League of Nations mandates.

• Nominal Independence: Granted some states independence but ensured they remained pro-British (e.g., Iraq in 1932, Jordan in 1946).

• Withdrawal from Palestine (1948): Britain ended its mandate in Palestine after escalating violence.

• Suez Crisis (1956): Attempted (with France and Israel) to regain control over the Suez Canal after Nasser nationalised it.

How did France govern Syria and Lebanon?

• Maintained direct colonial rule over Syria and Lebanon.

• Used military force to suppress revolts (e.g., Syrian Revolt of 1925-27).

• Supported Zionist terrorist groups against Britain in Palestine.

• Assisted Britain and Israel in the Suez Crisis (1956).

What were key US policies in the Middle East during the Cold War?

• Truman Doctrine (1947): Provided military and economic aid to Middle Eastern states resisting communism.

• Eisenhower Doctrine (1957): Opposed the spread of communism in the region, pledged US military intervention if necessary.

• Suez Crisis (1956): Forced Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw from Egypt.

• Support for Israel (post-1967): Strengthened ties with Israel after its victory in the Six-Day War (1967).

• Oil Security: Maintained alliances with Saudi Arabia and Gulf states to protect US oil interests.

What was the USSR’s policy in the Middle East?

• Military aid to Arab states: Supplied weapons and training to Egypt, Syria, and Iraq.

• Czech Arms Deal (1955): Provided Egypt with modern Soviet weapons, shifting the balance of power.

• Support for Nasser’s Egypt: Funded the Aswan Dam after the US withdrew its support.

• Encouraging Arab nationalism: Backed radical nationalist governments in Syria and Iraq.

• Maintaining influence in Egypt (1960s): Signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (1971) with Egypt.

Methods Used by Great Powers in the Middle East

How did Britain maintain control in the Middle East?

• Signed key agreements (e.g., Sykes-Picot (1916), Balfour Declaration (1917), Hussein-McMahon Correspondence (1915-16)).

• Imposed military restrictions (e.g., 1939 White Paper limiting Jewish immigration to Palestine).

• Used military force (e.g., suppression of Arab Revolt (1936-39), intervention in Suez Crisis (1956)).

How did France maintain control over its mandates?

• Controlled Syrian press and suppressed nationalist uprisings.

• Used military repression (e.g., bombing of Damascus (1925)).

How did the USA exert influence in the Middle East?

• Economic pressure: Threatened Israel with sanctions to force withdrawal from Sinai and Gaza (1957).

• Military intervention: Airlifted weapons to Israel in 1973 during the Yom Kippur War.

• Nuclear deterrence: Put US nuclear forces on DEFCON 2 during the Yom Kippur War.

How did the USSR exert influence in the Middle East?

• Arms deals: Supplied Arab states with Soviet aircraft, tanks, and missiles.

• Military advisors: Sent 15,000 Soviet military personnel to Egypt in 1970.

• Political alliances: Signed the Treaty of Friendship with Egypt (1971).

Key Turning Points in Great Power Involvement

Why was the Suez Crisis (1956) a turning point for Britain and France?

• Marked the end of British and French dominance in the region.

• Exposed their dependence on the USA, as the US forced them to withdraw.

• Allowed Nasser to emerge as a hero of Arab nationalism.

• USSR increased arms shipments to Arab states.

• USA airlifted weapons to Israel, ensuring its military success.

• Superpower tensions escalated, leading to a near nuclear confrontation.

Why was the 1991 Gulf War a key turning point for US dominance?

Why was the 2003 Iraq War significant?

• Overthrew Saddam Hussein, but created long-term instability.

• Increased anti-US sentiment in the Arab world.

• Marked the start of a prolonged US military presence in Iraq (2003-2011).