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Alternation of generations

A life cycle, typical of plants, in which a diploid sporophytes (spore-producing) generation alternates with a haploid gametophyte (gamete-producing) generation

Sporophyte

The multicellular diploid stage in the life cycle of a plant; produces haploid, asexual spores through mitosis. Dominant form of the life cycle.

Gametophytes

The multicellular haploid stage in the life cycle of plants

Multicellular Embryos

Distinguishes plants from other photosynthetic organisms

Chlorophyll

Green pigment which plays a crucial role in photosynthesis

Diploid

Cells which contain two complete sets (2n) of chromosomes

Haploid

Cells which contain only one complete set of chromosomes (n)

Gametes

Zoospores - Sperm (male) and eggs (female)

Zygote

Fertilized egg (diploid)

Embryo

(Diploid) Developed from a Zygote which matures into a sporophyte

Photosynthetic Protists

Ancestors of plants

Stoneworts

(green algae) plants closest living relatives
(contain the same type of chlorophyll, store food as starch, and have cell walls made of cellulose)

Mitosis

Division of a parent cell, producing 2 identical daughter cells

Meiosis

2 divisions of a germ cell, producing 4 non-identical gametes

Cuticle

Covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water (waxy)

Stomata

Pores in leaves and stems that open to allow gas exchange but close when water is scare, reducing the amount of water lost to evaporation

Lignin

A stiffening substance which is a rigid polymer that impregnates the conducting cells and supports the plant body. Helping to expose maximum surface area to sunlight. (most nonvascular plants lack this)

Nonvascular Plants

Also known as bryophytes which require moist environments to reproduce, thus straddle the boundary between aquatic and terrestrial life. Lack conducting structures.

Vascular Plants

Also known as tracheophytes has been able to colonize drier habitats. Has conducting vessels for transporting liquids.

Rhizoids

Rootlike anchoring structures for nonvascular plants which bring water and nutrients to the plant body.

Conducting Vessels

(Xylem and Phloem)
Transports water, minerals, nutrients (especially sugars), and hormones throughout a vascular plant.

Protective structures for gametes

Archegonium (female egg) and Antheridium (male sperm)

Heteromorphic

Different overall appearance of the gametophyte and sporophyte

Isomorphic

Similar overall appearance of the gametophyte bad sporophyte

Gymnosperms

nonflowering plants;
Conifers (Evergreens, Spruce, Cypress), Cycads, Ginkgo, Gnetophytes

Angiosperms

Flowering plants;
Monocots (grass, grains, lilies) and Dicots

Seeds

A replacement for spores as the land plants evolved

Pollen

Evolution of the male gametophyte

Mycelium
(plural, mycelia)

The body of most fungi; An interwoven mass of one-cell-thick, thread-like filaments.
Feeding network of a fungus

Hyphae
(singular, Hypha)

a thread-like structure that consists of elongated cells, typically with many haploid nuclei.

Septa
(singular, septum)

A partition that separates the fungal hypha into individual cells, contain pores which allow the transfer of material between cells.

Chitin

Structural polysaccharide of modified sugars with strengthen the fungal cell wall

Spores

In plants and fungi, a haploid cell capable of developing into an adult without fusing with another cell (without fertilization)

Chyrids

Oldest known fossil Fungi that lives in water (require it for reproduction), propels using a single flagellum.

Zygomycetes

Live in soil or on decaying plant or animal material.

Sporangia

Structure in which spores are produced

Glomeromycetes
(mycorrhizae fungi)

Lives with the roots of plants, penetrates the cells of the roots and form microscopic branching structures within the cell. Provides benefits to the plants

Basidiomycetes

(Club fungi)
Forms club-shaped reproductive structures
(mushrooms)

Basidia

a diploid cell, typically club-shaped; produces basidiospores by meiosis.

Ascomycetes

(Sac fungi)
Live in decaying vegetation and either form cup-shaped structures or mushroom-like fruiting.
Reproduce both asexually and sexually.

Ascus

A saclike case in which sexual spores are formed by Ascomycetes

Morels

corrugated mushroom like fruiting bodies of certain types of ascomycetes.

Lichens

Symbiotic association between an algae or cyanobacterium and a fungus. Can spare excess nutrients and provide protection from harsh conditions.

Mycorrhizae

Form a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plant roots; plants provide sugar molecules to the fungi and the fungi provides nutrients from the soil.

Endophytes

Fungi that live inside plant stems and leaves. Can be parasitic or beneficial.

Saprophytes

Fungi which feed on dead organisms, responsible of returning nutrients of all types back to the environment

Root System

All of the roots of a plant

Root

The part of the plant body, normally underground, that provides anchorage, absorbs water and dissolved nutrients and transports them to the stem, produces some hormones, and in some plants serves as a storage site for carbohydrates.

Shoot system

All the parts of a vascular plant exclusive of the root; normally above ground.
Consists of stem, leaves, buds, and flowers and fruits; functions include photosynthesis, transport of materials, reproduction, and hormone synthesis.

Monocots

type of flowering plant characterized by embryos with one seed leaf, or cotyledon
(lilies, daffodils, tulips, palm trees)

Dicots

Type of flowering plant characterized by embryos with two cotyledons, or seed leaves, that are usually modified for food storage
(most vegetables, mayflower in fields or gardens)

Cotyledon

the part of ta plant embryo that absorbs and often stores food reserves in the seed and then transfers the food to the rest of the embryo when the seed sprouts.

Meristem cells

A cell that remains capable of cell division throughout the life of a plant (keep the plant growing)

Differentiated cells

A mature cell specialized for a specific function; in plants, they do not normally divide (form the non-growing parts of the plants, such as mature leaves)

Apical meristems

The cluster of meristem cells at the tip of a shoot or root (or one of their branches)

Primary growth

Growth produced by apical meristem, length and development of the initial structures of plant roots and shoots

Lateral Meristems

Also called cambium; a meristem tissue that forms cylinders parallel to the long axis of roots and stems; normally located between the primary Xylem and primary Phloem and just outside the Phloem

Secondary growth

Occurs in woody plants. Growth in the diameter and strength of a stem or root due to cell division in lateral meristem and differentiation of their daughter cells

Tissue

A group of cells that together carry out a specific function; a tissue may also include extracellular material produced by its cells

Tissue system

A group of two or more tissues that together perform a specific function.

Dermal Tissue System

Covers the outer surface of the plant body. Plants have two types: epidermal and periderm

Ground Tissue system

Most of the body of young plants, bulk of a leaf or young stem. Most function in photosynthesis, support, or carbohydrate storage.
Three types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma

Vascular Tissue System

Transports fluids throughout the plant body

Epidermal tissue

Dermal tissue in plants which forms the epidermis which secretes cuticles

Epidermis

the outermost cell layer that covers leaves, young stems, and young roots

Periderm

The outer cell layers of roots and stems that have undergone secondary growth, consists primarily or cork cambium and cork cells; help anchor the plant in the soil but can no longer absorb water and minerals

Parenchyma

Most abundant ground tissue; carries out most of the metabolic activities, including photosynthesis, secretion of hormones, and food storage.

Collenchyma

Consists of cells that are typically elongated with thick but flexible cell walls; Provides support for the entire body of young and non-woody plants and leaf stalks.

Sclerenchyma

Composed of cells with thick hardened cell walls, die after they differentiate and cell walls will remain as a source of support

Xylem

Transports water and dissolved mineral in one direction from the roots to all parts of the shoot system;
has two conducting cell types: tracheid and vessel elements

Tracheids

thin elongated cells, stacked atop one another, with ends resembling hypodermic needles containing pits

Pits

Porous dimples in the cell walls that separate adjacent cells

Vessel elements

One of the cells of a Xylem vessel; elongated, dead at maturity, with thick lateral cell walls for support but with end walls that are either perforated or missing

Vessels

A tube Xylem composed of vertically stacked vessel elements with perforated or missing end walls, leaving a continuous, uninterrupted hollow cylinder

Phloem

Transports a solution containing a variety of organic molecules, including sugars, amino acids, and hormones from structures that synthesize them to other structure that need them.
Two cell types: sieve-tube elements and companion cells

Sieve-tube elements

Joined to form sieve tubes, as they mature they lose their nuclei and most other organelles

Sieve plates

Structure between two adjacent sieve tube elements, where holes formed in the cell walls interconnect the cytoplasm of the sieve-tube elements

Companion cells

Cells adjacent to the sieve-tube element in Phloem; involved in the control and nutrition of the sieve-tube element.

Plasmodesmata

connect companion cells to sieve-tube elements

Leaves

Major photosynthetic structures of most plants

Blade

The flat part of a leaf

Petiole

The stalk that connects the blade of a leaf to the stem. And positions the leaf for maximum exposure to the sun

Guard cells

Sausage-shaped cells of which encloses and adjust the size of the stomata opening

Mesophyll

Middle of the leaf which consists of loosely packed cells containing chloroplasts, carry out most of the photosynthesis of the leaf

Vascular bundles

In leaves also called veins; contain Xylem and Phloem conduct materials between the leaf and the rest of the plant body. Veins send thin branches close to each photosynthetic cell.

Stems

The portion of the plant body, normally located aboveground, that bears leaves and reproductive structures such as flowers and fruit.

Terminal bud

Meristem tissue and surrounding leaf primordial that are located at the tip of a plant shoot or a branch

Leaf primordial

A cluster of dividing cells, surrounding a terminal or lateral bud, that develops into a leaf

Node

Region of a stem at which the petiole of a leaf is attached, usually a lateral bud is also found here

Internodes

The part of the stem between two nodes

Lateral Buds

Small clusters of meristem cell found at the node of the stem; under appropriate conditions, it grows into a branch. (in most dicot shoots)

Flower buds

A cluster of meristem cells (a bud) that forms a flower

Cortex

A part of a primary root or stem located between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder, designed for food storage

Pith

Cells forming the center of a root or stem

Major Functions of the cortex and pith

Support, storage, and photosynthesis

Vascular Cambium

A lateral meristem that is located between the Xylem and Phloem of a woody root or stem and that gives rise to secondary Xylem and phloem

Sapwood

Young secondary Xylem that transports water and mineral in a tree trunk

Heatwood

Older secondary Xylem that usually no longer conducts water or minerals, but that contributes to the strength of a tree trunk

Palisade cells

mesophyll cells toward the topside of the leaf

Spongy cells

Bottom side of the mesophyll with many air spaces

Primary Root

First root to emerge when the seed begins to grow

Fibrous root system

In Monocots, the replacement of the primary root which is composed of roots about equal size

Taproot system

In Divots, the replacement of primary roots, which is the main root that all other roots branch off of

Root cap

Above the apical meristem where primary root growth begins, acts as a lubricating layer for the root to push through the soil

Endodermis

Forms a close fitting layer of cells around the vascular tissue

Casparian strip

Cell layer coated with a ways coasting; seal the spaces between endodermal cells to force material to pass through endodermal cells

Vascular cylinder

Inside the endodermis, where the Xylem and Phloem are located

Pericycle

Layer of cells at the outer most edge of the vascular cylinder, cells retain their ability to divide

Branch root

Off the main taproot; Created when the pericycle is stimulated by hormones

Nutrients

Materials required for life

Macronutrients

Nutrients needed in large quantities:
C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Ca, Fe, Mg

C HOPKiNS CaFe Mighty Good

C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Ca, Fe, Mg

Macronutrients

Micronutrients

Nutrients needed in small amounts:
Cl, Mn, Mo, Cu, B, Z

Limiting Nutrients

Nitrogen, and Phosphorus

Mineral absorption by roots

1)Active transport into root hairs
2) diffusion through root hair cytoplasm to pericycle cell via pores called plasmodesmata
3) active transport from pericycle cytoplasm into the extracellular space of the vascular cylinder
4) diffusion into the sylem

Nitrogen fixation

Symbiotic relationship ;Nitrogen fixing bacteria have enzymes necessary to convert N2 into NH4 and NO3

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Live in nodules of legumes (peas, soybeans); plant supplies the sugar for energy and the bacteria produces NH4 or NO3

Osmosis

diffusion of water across along a concentration gradient of free water molecules; water moves from solution with higher free water concentration (lower dissolved materials) into lower free water concentration (higher dissolved materials).

Bulk flow

Water and mineral move together

Cohesion-tension theory

How water is pulled up large plants

Cohesion

- water within xylem tubes sticks together (by hydrogen bonds). Water molecules in the xylem tube resist being pulled apart

tension

water is pulled up. Because water molecules bind to each other, they can pull water up like a chain

Transportation

Force of evaporation from the leaves pulls water up the xylem

1) Water evaporation occurs thru stomata of leaves
2) Water leaving leaf makes it "dry", so it pulls in more water from xylem.
3)The water molecule leaving the xylem is "stuck" to other water molecules,
so it pulls up on those molecules, thereby pulling the "chain"
of water molecules up the tree.

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