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Qualitative Methods: Observation, Focus Groups, and Other Qualitative Techniques - Comprehensive Notes

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

  • Qualitative Research
    • Purpose: To explore
    • Questions: Not standardized
    • Instrument: Camera, voice recorder, etc.
    • Sample: Small
    • Analysis: Subjective
    • Result: Tentative; exploratory research
  • Quantitative Research
    • Purpose: To understand
    • Questions: Standardized
    • Instrument: Questionnaire
    • Sample: Large
    • Analysis: Objective
    • Result: Conclusive; descriptive or causal research

Observation Techniques

  • Techniques in which the researcher relies on his or her observation of behavior rather than communicating with a person in order to obtain information
  • Classification of Observation techniques:
    • Direct vs. indirect
    • Disguised vs. undisguised
    • Structured vs. unstructured
    • Human vs. mechanical

Direct vs. Indirect Observation

  • Direct observation: observing behavior as it occurs
  • Indirect observation: observing the effects or results of the behavior rather than the behavior itself – Archives – Physical traces

Disguised vs. Undisguised Observation

  • Disguised observation: subject is unaware that he or she is being observed; mall tracking
  • Undisguised observation: respondent is aware of observation; shadow

Structured vs. Unstructured Observation

  • Structured observation: researcher identifies beforehand which behaviors are to be observed and recorded
  • Unstructured observation: no restriction is placed on what the observer would note: all behavior in the episode under study is monitored

Human vs. Mechanical Observation

  • Human observation: observer is a person hired by the researcher, or, perhaps the observer is the researcher
  • Mechanical observation: human observer is replaced with some form of static observing device

Mechanical Techniques

  • Eye movement recorders
  • Pulpilometer
  • Voice pitch analysis
  • People monitors in TV
  • Traffic counters
  • People Reader / Meter
  • Physiological measurement devices - lie detector
  • Galvanic skin responses
  • Electroencephalograph
  • Rapid Analysis Measurement System (RAMS)
  • Scanners – such as the grocery “BehaviorScan”

The Nature of Observation Research

Advantages & Disadvantages of Observation Techniques

  • Advantages:
    • Insight into actual, not reported, behaviors
    • Certain types of data can only be collected via observation
    • No chance for recall error
    • Better accuracy
    • Less cost
  • Disadvantages:
    • Small number of subjects/time consuming
    • Subjective interpretations—your perception
    • Less suited for “private” behaviors
    • Inability to pry beneath the behavior observed and understand motivations, attitudes, and other internal conditions
    • ……we don’t know the why?
    • May not be appropriate to observe without consent.

Focus Groups – Overview

  • Small groups of people brought together and guided by a moderator through a focused yet undirected, spontaneous discussion for the purpose of gaining information relevant to the research problem.

Design the Focus Group Environment

  • Recruit and Select Focus Group Participants
  • Select a Moderator
  • Prepare the Discussion Guide
  • Conduct the Group Interview
  • Prepare the Focus Group Report
  • Figure 2.4 Conducting a Problem Audit Procedure for Conducting a Focus Group*

Selection Process, Facilities, and People

  • Selection process:
    • Potential opinion leaders are best
    • Participants must be screened for relevance to the topic
  • A focus group facility: A research facility consisting of a conference room or living room setting and a separate observation room with a one-way mirror or live audiovisual feed.
  • A person hired by the client to lead the focus group; this person should have a background in psychology or sociology or, at least, marketing.
  • Create moderator's guide to include:
    • Timetable for each topic
    • Clear goals/questions to be answered
    • Strategy for keeping group on task / focused
    • Managing the group dynamics is critical
  • The Participants:
  • The Moderator:
  • The Location:
  • Conducting a Focus Group
  • Key Issues:

Types of Focus Groups

  • Traditional: 6 to 12 homogeneous participants meet in a dedicated room with one-way mirror for client viewing, for about two hours.
  • Nontraditional: Online focus groups with client viewing from distant locations; may have 25 or even 50 respondents; allow client interaction; may take place in nontraditional locations.
  • Advantages:
    • No physical setup is necessary
    • Transcripts are captured on file in real time
    • Participants can be in widely separated geographical areas
    • Participants are comfortable in their own environments
    • The moderator can exchange private messages with individual participants

Some More Types of Focus Groups*

  • Two-way focus group: one target group can listen to and learn from a related group (e.g., physicians vs arthritis patients)
  • Dual-moderator group: two moderators: one ensures smooth flow, the other ensures specific issues are discussed
  • Dueling-moderator group: two moderators with opposite positions on issues to discuss
  • Respondent-moderator group: selected participants play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics

Focus Groups: Advantages & Disadvantages

  • Advantages:
    • Generate fresh ideas
    • Allow clients to observe their participants
    • May be directed at understanding a wide variety of issues
    • Allow fairly easy access to special respondent groups (e.g., physicians, lawyers)
    • Appropriate when the research objective is to describe (e.g., describe ideas for an ad campaign) rather than predict.
  • Disadvantages:
    • Representativeness of participants
    • Interpretation sometimes difficult
    • High cost per participant
    • Not appropriate when the research objective is to predict a specific number based upon sample data.

Focus Groups: Dos and Don'ts

  • (Video reference: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Auf9pkuCc8k)
  • Tips include building rapport, guiding discussion, balanced participation, and ethical considerations.

Next session

  • 8-18 Marketing Research, Spring 2010 Next session.. • Design of the day! 01 X 02 X 03 04 05 06 X 07 08 Qs: Do you think managers coming from top business schools will have a better grasp of business knowledge?

Other Qualitative Techniques

  • Depth interview: one-on-one questions posed by a trained interviewer to gain insight into what the subject thinks about something or why he or she behaves a certain way.
  • Protocol analysis: placing a person in a decision-making situation and asking them to verbalize everything they consider when making a decision.

Projective Techniques

  • Participants are placed in (projected into) simulated activities to disclose things about themselves not revealed under direct questioning
  • Techniques include:
    • Word association test
    • Sentence completion
    • Role-playing activity

Sentence Completion Example

  • INSTRUCTIONS. Write in words to complete each of the sentences below.
  • For college students, credit cards are……..
  • College students use credit cards to……….
  • When a college freshman gets a new credit card application, he/she……..
  • When a college student reaches the limit of his/her credit card he/she……..
  • When a college senior gets a new credit card application, he/she……..
  • If parents of college students learned about their children’s credit card situations, they would……..

Data Coding

Example of Direct Observation

  • HOME DEPOT Shopper/Store Use Profile
  • Average time in store: 32.4 (minutes)
  • Customer party size: 1.2 (persons)
  • Average expenditures: 57.34 (dollars)
  • Payment method: 73.0 ext{%} (credit card)
  • Number of aisles traveled: 5.7
  • Requests for assistance: 0.5
  • Stops and looks at items: 5.4
  • Items handled per stop: 2.1
  • Total items handled: 9.3
  • Items purchased: 2.5
  • Product Categories of Purchases:
    • Appliances 10%
    • Hand tools 22%
    • Electrical 31%
    • Plumbing 14%
    • Roofing 3%
    • Garden 35%
    • Other 26%
  • We know WHAT BUT, We don’t know WHY!

Findings and observations – Tylenol

  • Reactions after Positive Video
    • Influenced by family
    • Household brand
    • Loyalty
    • Pain relief
    • Frequent use
    • “I buy the brand because I grew up with the brand during my childhood”
    • Discrepancy among participants
    • Fluctuating views
    • Doubts of repurchases
    • Noticed some bias in responses
    • Some remained loyal
    • Were not influenced by negative video
    • Tylenol “will be around forever because the name resonates everywhere”
  • Reactions after Negative Video
    • (Same themes as above typically contrasted with positive response in qualitative notes)

Product Attributes and Laddering (Depth Interview)

  • Attributes: Sensor Razor
  • Features: Spring blade suspension; Lubricating strip
  • Consequences: Close shave; Smooth, soft shave
  • Values: Be well groomed; Be comfortable
  • Depth Interview: Laddering Example* “Forward” → ß“Backward”

Focus Groups Reporting and Use of Results

  • Factors to remember when analyzing focus group data:
    • Translate the qualitative statements of participants into major themes and categories and then reporting the degree of consensus (e.g., tally marks/percentage of respondents) among the participants of the focus group
    • Demographics and buyer behavior characteristics of focus group participants should be judged against the target market profile to assess the degree the groups represent the target market

Kraft Age Findings Example

  • AGE: UNDER 18 | 19-24 | 25-40 | 40-60
  • KEY WORDS: MALE/FEMALE | MALE/FEMALE | MALE/FEMALE | MALE/FEMALE
  • Mac & Cheese: 4/2 | 14/8 | 2/3 | 3/4
  • Blue: 4/2 | 10/8 | 0/2 | 1/2
  • Cheese Singles: 0/0 | 7/7 | 0/1 | 3/4
  • Easy/Quick: 0/0 | 2/1 | 0/0 | 0/0
  • Orange/Yellow: 4/2 | 14/7 | 1/3 | 3/3
  • Childhood: 0/0 | 2/2 | 0/1 | 0/2
  • TOTAL: 4/2 | 14/10 | 2/3 | 4/4

Charts for Analyzing Data

  • Charts show analysis across product categories: Mac and Cheese; Blue Cheese; Singles; Quick/Easy; Orange/Yellow; Childhood
  • Visual representation typically includes bars/lines per category with male/female breakdown; axis values range up to around 40 (units as shown in the chart)

Lets Plan Your Exploratory Studies..

Next Session Details

  • 8-29: Lets plan your exploratory studies…

More Details on Focus Groups

  • Focus group expansion: follow-up sessions, online methods, and integration with other qualitative techniques

Moderator Skills and Rapport (Focus Group Leader)

  • Meet and greet the participants before the focus group
  • Ask personal questions during warm-up
  • Reveal personal information about yourself
  • Ask for participants’ assistance during the process
  • Use humor when appropriate
  • Dress at the same level as the respondents
  • Start the focus group session sitting down
  • Have a discussion guide to assist
  • The Moderator Builds Rapport

What Makes a Good Moderator?

  • Key Qualities:
    • Genuine interest in people's behavior, emotions, lifestyles, passions, prejudices, and opinions
    • Accepting and appreciative of participant differences
    • Objective and open-minded
    • Good listening skills
    • Good observation skills – can pick up on body language
    • Interested in a wide array of subjects
    • Prepares for the topic at hand to enhance credibility

The Moderator's Role is Key – Key Factors

  • The Moderator:
    • Has good oral, written, and organizational skills
    • Is able to manage conversation flow
    • Is good at follow-up questioning and probing
    • Has good attention to detail and is precise
    • Should understand the client’s business and industry
    • Should be able to provide strategic leadership to management
    • Should be personable and easy to work with

Candor, Observation, and Data Quality

  • Candor of participants; Looks the customer in the eye
  • Generates fresh ideas and brainstorming
  • Allows client to observe on-site
  • Can be executed quickly
  • Can enhance other data collection methods
  • Participants provide valuable information for the next research phase
  • Challenges:
    • Expense and time
    • A significant level of expertise is needed
    • Participation issues - “no shows”
    • The interpretation is subjective
    • Often misused as representative of the population

Pros and Cons of Focus Groups (Summary)

  • Pros:
    • Low costs & no geographic barriers
    • Can be executed quickly
    • Good for generating fresh ideas / brainstorming
    • Can enhance other data collection methods
    • Participants provide valuable information for the next research phase
  • Cons:
    • Loss of group dynamics, hands-on interaction
    • Interpretation is subjective
    • Projective techniques may be less effective
    • Security concerns (you don’t know who is at the computer)
    • Non-verbal inputs often missed
    • Attention may drift; loss of direct client observation involvement
    • Often misused as representative of the population
    • Exposure to external stimuli can stymie results
    • Role and skill of moderator not always fully realized

Online Focus Groups – What Works

  • Combining online and telephone focus groups
  • Videoconferencing
  • Viewing focus groups online

Other Trends in Focus Group Methods

  • Trends include hybrid approaches and enhanced digital capabilities

Endnotes

  • This set of notes mirrors the Marketing Research course content from Spring 2010, focusing on qualitative methods: observation, focus groups, and complementary techniques.