W5 Iron Age Mesopotamia ^0 Persia Lecture Notes

Bronze Age Collapse and the Rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire

• Marked beginning around 1100 BCE in Mainland Greece.

• Most Mycenaean sites abandoned; Greeks adopted nomadic lifestyles.

• Reading and writing were lost in this period termed the “Greek Dark Age” (ca. 1100-900 BCE).

• The power and splendor of the Mycenaeans faded but not entirely forgotten.

• Collapse of Bronze Age cultures not isolated; unrest in the Mediterranean (e.g., Hittites, New Kingdom Egypt).

• Climate change and disease contributed to political fragmentation throughout the region.

• Smaller cultures, like the Phoenicians and the Kingdom of Israel, gained autonomy during this time.

• The Iron Age sees the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as a dominant force.

The Art of the Assyrians

• Assyrian art depicted brutal conquests, but also includes 30,000 clay tablets, notably the "flood tablet" from the Epic of Gilgamesh.

The Assyrian Invasion and Empire Expansion

• Late Bronze Age Mesopotamia was invaded by various people including the Elamites.

• The Assyrians, named after their city of Ashur, were Semitic speakers continuing Sumerian traditions.

• The Assyrians were ruthless warriors, suppressing rebellions militarily.

• At its height (9th-7th centuries BCE), the Neo-Assyrian Empire encompassed Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, and parts of Turkey and Iran.

• Key capitals: Kalhu (Nimrud), Dur Sharukkin (Khorsabad), Nineveh, all near the Tigris River.

Neo-Assyrian Sculpture: Lamassu Figures

• The lamassu, a human-headed winged lion, served as a divine guardian, combining attributes of strength, intelligence, and speed.

• Often flanked doorways to intimidate visitors; typically carved from a single block.

• Carvings showcase perspectives creating a different appearance from various angles (e.g., five legs from a three-quarter view).

• Comparable in function to the Egyptian sphinx.

Neo-Assyrian Architecture and Planning: Palace of Sargon II

• Enclosed within a citadel with prominent entrance gates; emphasized the king's power.

• Integrated ziggurats within palatial complexes, reflecting religious and political authority.

• Mud-brick constructions faced with stone relief sculptures emphasizing war and the king’s power.

Neo-Assyrian Relief Sculpture

• Employ hierarchical scale, registers, and 'twisted perspective' in depictions.

• Human figures often bulky, lacking emotion, contrasting with detailed animal portrayals.

• Themes of royal power represented through lion hunts, warfare, and divine kingship.

• Historical depictions correlate with documented events, such as the Siege of Lachish (Israel).

The Kingdom of Kush and Egypt

• Late 8th century BCE saw the Kingdom of Kush rise to power, ruling Egypt as the 25th Dynasty.

• Kings like Taharqa honored Egyptian traditions while infusing their unique elements.

• Nubian pyramids surpass Egyptian size but maintained connections to Egyptian culture.

Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Ishtar Gate

• Following the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BCE, Babylon rose under Nebuchadnezzar II.

• Known for architectural splendor, including the Ishtar Gate, decorated with glazed bricks.

• Celebrated for vibrant colors and depictions of sacred animals symbolizing royal power.

The Persian Empire and Persepolis

• The Achaemenid Persians, known for relative tolerance, conquered remnants of the Assyrian Empire.

• At peak, controlled vast territories from Egypt to India, with Persepolis as the capital.

• Notable architectural styles combined various cultural elements from the regions conquered.

Key Architectural Features of Persepolis

• Layout follows an organized grid pattern, reminiscent of Assyrian design.

• The "Gate of All Nations" signifies inclusion of various cultures; lamassu figures retained from Assyrian art.

• Apadana (Audience Hall) supported large gatherings, showcasing tribute representations from subject peoples.

• Architectural features integrated traditions from conquered regions, reflecting a multicultural empire.

Relief Sculpture and Cultural Representation

• Reliefs depicted peaceful tributes, contrasting with Assyrian art focused on conquest.

• Persian art emphasized autonomy of subject people while maintaining a tribute system.

Coins and Mass Media

• The "daric" coin illustrates a shift in art form; propagated images of kings to influence the wider economy.

Greek Influence and Emergence from the Dark Age

• Early cultural development in Greece resumed around 900 BCE; emergence of city-states or poleis.

• New ceramic styles, particularly the Geometric and Orientalizing periods, reflected interactions with Eastern Mediterranean cultures.

Geometric and Orientalizing Phases in Greek Pottery

• Geometric Period (9th-8th centuries BCE): Vases featured geometric patterns and human figures in mourning rituals.

• Orientalizing Period (7th century): Corinth led in vase production; black-figure style developed alongside Eastern influences.

• Greek trade and colonization expanded cultural exchanges, paving the way for future developments in art and society.

Study Questions

• Describe the fundamental facts about the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Achaemenid Persian Empires.

• Examine the continuity of early Mesopotamian traditions in the art forms of these cultures.

• Identify external influences present in the artworks and cultural practices during this period.

• Discuss subject matter and stylistic approaches distinctive to the art of these civilizations.

• Familiarize with terms and techniques relevant to this module, including: Bronze Age collapse, Greek Dark Age, lamassu, Nimrud ivories, Kingdom of Kush, glazed brick, axis mundi, apadana, and differences between Geometric and Orientalizing pottery.

Bronze Age Collapse and the Rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire

• Timeline: Marked beginning around 1100 BCE in Mainland Greece, the Bronze Age collapse was a pivotal period that saw significant cultural and political transformations in the ancient world.

• Mycenaean Decline: Most Mycenaean sites were abandoned, leading to the adoption of nomadic lifestyles by the Greeks. This decline of such a powerful civilization resulted in a considerable loss of urban infrastructure and a shift in societal structure.

• Greek Dark Age: Reading and writing were lost during this time, referred to as the “Greek Dark Age” (ca. 1100-900 BCE), where arts and trade networks diminished significantly. This resulted in a largely illiterate society focused on survival.

• Cultural Fragmentation: The previous splendor of the Mycenaeans faded but was not entirely forgotten; their cultural legacies carried on in fragmented forms throughout the region.

• Wider Disruptions: The collapse of Bronze Age cultures was not isolated to Greece; unrest affected the Mediterranean at large, with cultures such as the Hittites and the New Kingdom Egypt also experiencing turmoil and decline.

• Contributing Factors: Climate change and diseases played crucial roles in political fragmentation throughout the region, impacting agriculture and causing famines that destabilized societies.

• Emergence of Smaller Cultures: During this tumultuous era, smaller cultures, including the Phoenicians and the Kingdom of Israel, gained distinct autonomy and began developing their own identities and trade networks.

The Iron Age and the Rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire

• The transition into the Iron Age led to the emergence of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as a dominant force in the Near East.

The Art of the Assyrians

• Assyrian art is characterized by depictions of brutal conquests and victories but also includes a wealth of artistic texts, around 30,000 clay tablets, featuring diverse subjects including legendary narratives such as the "flood tablet" from the Epic of Gilgamesh.

The Assyrian Invasion and Empire Expansion

• The Late Bronze Age was marked by invasions from various peoples such as the Elamites, contributing to the upheaval of established powers.

• The Neo-Assyrians, named after their city of Ashur, were Semitic speakers who revered and continued many Sumerian traditions. They were known for their military prowess and ruthlessness in suppressing rebellions.

• Empire Extent: At its height (9th-7th centuries BCE), the Neo-Assyrian Empire encompassed a vast territory including modern-day Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, and parts of Turkey and Iran, establishing itself as a formidable empire in the ancient world.

• Key Capitals: The primary capitals of the Neo-Assyrian Empire—Kalhu (Nimrud), Dur Sharukkin (Khorsabad), and Nineveh—were strategically located near the Tigris River, facilitating trade and military movement.

Neo-Assyrian Sculpture: Lamassu Figures

• The lamassu, a human-headed winged lion, served as a divine guardian meant to protect the cities against evil forces. This symbolic figure combined attributes of strength, intelligence, and speed.

• Often flanking doorways, these figures were designed to intimidate visitors; they were typically carved from a single block of stone.

• Artistic Technique: The carvings showcased a unique use of perspective, creating different appearances when viewed from various angles, such as appearing to have five legs from a three-quarter view, ensuring their imposing presence.

• These figures are comparable in function to the Egyptian sphinx, serving as guardians in their respective cultures.

Neo-Assyrian Architecture and Planning: Palace of Sargon II

• The Palace of Sargon II exemplifies Neo-Assyrian architectural sophistication with its enclosed citadel, designed to convey the king’s power through grand entrance gates.

• Integrating ziggurats within palatial complexes underscored the merging of religious and political authority.

• Mud-brick constructions were faced with elaborate stone relief sculptures that predominantly emphasized themes of war, conquest, and the king’s authority.

Neo-Assyrian Relief Sculpture

• Relief sculptures from this period employed hierarchical scale, registers, and ‘twisted perspective’ in their depictions to convey importance.

• Human figures are often depicted as bulky and lacking emotional depth, which contrasts sharply with detailed representations of animals, which were portrayed with a sense of realism and vitality.

• Themes of royal power are prevalent, represented through scenes of lion hunts, warfare, and divine kingship. Notably, some reliefs have been linked to documented historical events, such as the Siege of Lachish (Israel).

The Kingdom of Kush and Egypt

• In the late 8th century BCE, the Kingdom of Kush rose to power, even ruling over Egypt during the 25th Dynasty. Kings like Taharqa were notable for honoring Egyptian traditions while infusing distinct Nubian cultural elements.

• Nubian pyramids from this era are striking for their size and architectural style, surpassing those of Egypt while maintaining strong cultural ties.

Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Ishtar Gate

• Following the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BCE, Babylon, under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II, experienced a renaissance characterized by architectural grandeur including the renowned Ishtar Gate, which was decorated with cobalt blue glazed bricks and detailed imagery of sacred animals, signifying royal power.

The Persian Empire and Persepolis

• The Achaemenid Persians, recognized for their relative tolerance of local customs, conquered the remnants of the Assyrian Empire, establishing vast territories that extended from Egypt to India, with Persepolis serving as the capital.

• Architectural Styles: Persepolis featured notable architectural styles that combined various cultural elements from the regions conquered, showcasing a blend of traditions.

Key Architectural Features of Persepolis

• The city's layout follows an organized grid pattern, a trait reminiscent of previous Assyrian designs, allowing for efficient governance and trade.

• The "Gate of All Nations," adorned with lamassu figures, reflects the inclusion of diverse cultures within the empire.

• The Apadana (Audience Hall) was designed to house large gatherings, highlighting tribute representations from subject peoples, fostering a sense of unity and loyalty.

• Architectural features integrated traditions from conquered regions, mirroring a multicultural empire that celebrated its diversity while maintaining a cohesive identity.

Relief Sculpture and Cultural Representation

• Persian relief sculptures predominantly depicted peaceful tributes, contrasting sharply with Assyrian art that focused heavily on conquest and military success. This indicated a shift in the narrative of power during the Persian period.

• Persian art emphasized the autonomy of subject peoples while maintaining a structured tribute system that allowed for the sustenance of the empire through economic exchanges.

Coins and Mass Media

• The introduction of the "daric" coin marked a significant shift in art and commerce, as it propagated images of kings and served to influence the wider economy, solidifying the king’s image across the empire.

Greek Influence and Emergence from the Dark Age

• Cultural development in Greece began to resume around 900 BCE, leading to the emergence of city-states or poleis that became centers of political and cultural life.

• Ceramic Styles: New ceramic styles emerged, particularly during the Geometric and Orientalizing periods, which reflected increased interactions with Eastern Mediterranean and near-Eastern cultures, signalling technological advancements and cultural exchanges.

Geometric and Orientalizing Phases in Greek Pottery

• Geometric Period (9th-8th centuries BCE): Vases from this time featured intricate geometric patterns and representations of human figures, often in the context of mourning rituals, showcasing early artistic expression.

• Orientalizing Period (7th century): Corinth became the leader in vase production during this time, innovating the black-figure style influenced by Eastern motifs and techniques, which further expanded Greek trade and colonization efforts and paved the way for future developments in Greek art and societal structures.

Study Questions

1. Describe the fundamental facts about the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Achaemenid Persian Empires.

2. Examine the continuity of early Mesopotamian traditions in the art forms of these cultures.

3. Identify external influences present in the artworks and cultural practices during this period.

4. Discuss subject matter and stylistic approaches distinctive to the art of these civilizations.

5. Familiarize with terms and techniques relevant to this module, including: Bronze Age collapse, Greek Dark Age, lamassu, Nimrud ivories, Kingdom of Kush, glazed brick, axis mundi, apadana, and differences between Geometric and Orientalizing pottery.

Continuation of Early (Bronze Age) Mesopotamian Art Traditions by the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Cultures

1. Artistic Techniques: The use of perspective and sculptural techniques seen in earlier Mesopotamian art were preserved, particularly in the creation of relief sculptures and architectural features.

2. Motifs and Iconography: Many motifs, such as divine guardians like the lamassu, showcased continuity in regional symbolism, combining traditional Mesopotamian attributes with new elements.

3. Relief Sculpture: The practice of detailed relief sculpture continued, utilizing hierarchical scale and registers found in older Mesopotamian works.

4. Narrative Art: The tradition of storytelling through art persisted, with historical events depicted in reliefs correlating with documented occurrences, similar to earlier narrative traditions.

5. Cultural Symbolism: The merging of religious and political themes within art, as seen in both architecture and sculpture, echoes the earlier Bronze Age's integration of these elements.

Response to the Influence of Egypt by the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires

1. Adoption of Architectural Features: The incorporation of ziggurats into palatial complexes and the use of monumental architecture are reflections of Egyptian influences.

2. Artistic Symbolism: Similar to the Egyptian art style, Mesopotamian cultures incorporated detailed depictions of royal power and divine assistance, enhancing their own cultural narratives.

3. Pyramid Construction: The Nubian pyramids of the Kingdom of Kush illustrate a response to Egyptian architectural style, while also maintaining distinct cultural identity, showing adaptation and influence.

4. Religious Themes: Many deities and mythological stories shared across the cultures showed a blending of beliefs that reflected Egyptian influence, especially in representations of kingship and divine legitimacy.

5. Use of Glazed Brick and Color: The vibrant use of color, as exemplified in the Ishtar Gate, can hint at the influence of Egyptian color symbolism and decorative practices in architecture.

Responses of Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires to Egyptian Influence

1. Adoption of Architectural Features: Incorporation of ziggurats into palatial complexes and use of monumental architecture reflecting Egyptian styles.

2. Artistic Symbolism: Egyptian influenced artistic depictions of royal power and divine assistance, enhancing cultural narratives.

3. Pyramid Construction: The Nubian pyramids built by the Kingdom of Kush demonstrate a response to the architectural style of Egyptian pyramids while maintaining a distinct cultural identity.

4. Religious Themes: Shared deities and mythological stories highlighted a blending of beliefs influenced by Egyptian representations of kingship and divine legitimacy.

5. Use of Glazed Brick and Color: The vibrant use of color, notably seen in structures like the Ishtar Gate, reflects Egyptian color symbolism and decorative practices.

The Kingdom of Kush is not part of the Assyrian, Babylonian, or Persian empires; instead, it was an independent civilization located to the south of Egypt, in what is now Sudan. The Kingdom of Kush rose to power and even ruled over Egypt during the 25th Dynasty. While there were interactions between Kush and these empires, especially in terms of cultural exchange and influence, Kush is distinct from Assyria, Babylon, and Persia.

Ruins of and Reliefs from Persepolis, 521 - 465 BCE

• Historical Context: Persepolis was built during the Achaemenid Empire under the reign of Darius I, symbolizing the empire's power and diversity.

• Architectural Features: The layout of Persepolis follows an organized grid pattern, reminiscent of earlier Assyrian designs, allowing for efficient administration and ceremonial functions.

• Key Structures:

  • Gate of All Nations: Features lamassu figures, representing the inclusion of diverse cultures within the empire.

  • Apadana: The Audience Hall designed to accommodate large gatherings and ceremonial events, showcasing tribute from subject nations, enhancing political ties.

• Relief Sculptures:

  • Depictions primarily emphasize peaceful tributes rather than military conquest, in contrast to earlier Assyrian art.

  • Reliefs illustrate diverse subject peoples presenting gifts, underlining the Achaemenid practice of maintaining tributary relationships while respecting local customs.

• Cultural Significance: Persepolis served as a symbol of the Achaemenid Persian Empire's wealth, strength, and cultural amalgamation, showcasing architectural innovation and the integration of artistic styles from conquered regions.

Basic Facts about the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Achaemenid Persian Empires

• Neo-Assyrian Empire

  • Who: A Semitic-speaking group continuing Sumerian traditions.

  • When: At its height from the 9th to 7th centuries BCE.

  • Where: Encompassed modern-day Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, and parts of Turkey and Iran, with key capitals in Kalhu (Nimrud), Dur Sharukkin (Khorsabad), and Nineveh.

• Neo-Babylonian Empire

  • Who: Emerged following the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, notably under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II.

  • When: Rose to power after 612 BCE, flourishing during the 7th and 6th centuries BCE.

  • Where: Primarily centered in Babylon, located in present-day Iraq, known for its architectural splendors like the Ishtar Gate.

• Achaemenid Persian Empire

  • Who: A collection of diverse peoples united under Achaemenid rule, known for its relative tolerance of local customs.

  • When: Established in the 6th century BCE, peaking from the 5th century to 330 BCE.

  • Where: Spanned vast territories from Egypt to India, with Persepolis as a prominent capital.

Continuation of Early Mesopotamian Art Traditions by the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Cultures

• Artistic Techniques: The use of perspective and sculptural techniques seen in earlier Mesopotamian art were preserved, particularly in the creation of relief sculptures and architectural features.

• Motifs and Iconography: Many motifs, such as divine guardians like the lamassu, showcased continuity in regional symbolism, combining traditional Mesopotamian attributes with new elements.

• Relief Sculpture: The practice of detailed relief sculpture continued, utilizing hierarchical scale and registers found in older Mesopotamian works.

• Narrative Art: The tradition of storytelling through art persisted, with historical events depicted in reliefs correlating with documented occurrences, similar to earlier narrative traditions.

• Cultural Symbolism: The merging of religious and political themes within art, as seen in both architecture and sculpture, echoes the earlier Bronze Age's integration of these elements.

The art of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires reflects various outside influences, particularly from earlier Mesopotamian traditions and Egypt. For instance:

1. Egyptian Influence: Both architectural features and artistic symbolism in Mesopotamian cultures show clear responses to Egyptian styles. For example, the incorporation of ziggurats in palatial complexes mirrors the monumental structures found in Egypt.

2. ** Divine Guardians**: The lamassu figures in Assyrian art appear to be influenced by the Egyptian sphinx, serving a protective role at entrances and embodying strength and authority.

3. Religious Themes: Many artworks feature shared mythological figures and themes, indicating a blending of beliefs influenced by Egyptian representations of kingship and the divine.

4. Vibrant Colors: The use of color, particularly in structures like the Ishtar Gate, reflects Egyptian practices in decoration and symbolism, highlighting royal power and divine relationships.

These influences showcase how cultural interactions shaped the artistic expressions of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires.

The art of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires features distinct subjects and stylistic qualities:

1. Subjects:

   • Royal Power: Many artworks depict scenes of royal authority, emphasizing the king's divine right to rule.

   • Military Conquests: Art often showcases victories in battles, such as lion hunts and military campaigns, reinforcing the prowess of the empire.

   • Divine Figures: Representations of gods and goddesses are prevalent, reflecting the cultural and religious beliefs of the societies.

   • Tribute and Tribute Bearers: Relief sculptures frequently illustrate subjects presenting tributes to the king, highlighting subordinate relationships and cultural exchanges.

2. Stylistic Qualities:

   • Hierarchical Scale: Important figures, such as the king or gods, are depicted larger than lesser figures, conveying significance.

   • Registers and Twisted Perspective: These techniques are employed in relief sculptures, where scenes are arranged in a series of horizontal bands (registers), and figures are often shown in a twisted stance to showcase multiple viewpoints.

   • Realism in Animal Portrayals: Animals, especially in hunting scenes, are depicted with a sense of vitality and detailed realism, contrasting with the more rigid human forms.

   • Emphasis on Texture and Detail: Relief sculptures and architectural features are characterized by intricate detailing, showcasing the artisans' skills and the cultural focus on embellishment.

Key Terms and Techniques

1. Bronze Age Collapse: A period around 1100 BCE marked by the decline of Mycenaean civilization in Greece, leading to cultural and political transformations across the Mediterranean, often attributed to invasions, climate change, and disease.

2. Greek Dark Age: The era from approximately 1100 to 900 BCE following the Bronze Age collapse, characterized by a significant loss of literacy, urban infrastructure, and artistic production, resulting in a largely illiterate and nomadic society.

3. Lamassu: A mythical creature in Assyrian art, depicted as a human-headed winged lion, serving as a divine guardian at entrances, combining attributes of strength, intelligence, and speed, often showcasing artistic techniques that create varying perspectives from different angles.

4. Nimrud Ivories: Intricately carved ivory artifacts from the Neo-Assyrian capital of Nimrud, showcasing the high level of craftsmanship and providing insights into the artistic practices and cultural values of the Assyrians.

5. Kingdom of Kush: An ancient civilization located to the south of Egypt (in present-day Sudan) that rose to power and even ruled Egypt during the 25th Dynasty, known for its Nubian pyramids and distinct cultural identity.

6. Glazed Brick: A decorative technique used in ancient Near Eastern architecture that involves covering bricks with a layer of glaze, leading to vibrant colors and elaborate designs, notable in structures like the Ishtar Gate of Babylon.

7. Axis Mundi: A concept in various cultures representing the connection between Heaven and Earth, often depicted in art and architecture to symbolize a cosmic order.

8. Apadana: The grand audience hall in Persepolis designed for receiving tributes from subject peoples, characterized by its large scale and monumental architecture that underscored the king's power and authority.

9. Geometric Pottery: A style of pottery in Greece (9th-8th centuries BCE) known for its intricate geometric patterns and depictions of human figures in mourning rituals, marking the early expressions of Greek artistic identity.

10. Orientalizing Style Pottery: An evolution in Greek ceramics (7th century BCE) featuring black-figure techniques influenced by Eastern motifs, particularly from Corinth, reflecting increased trade and cultural exchanges in the Mediterranean.

In the art of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires, there is generally a lack of emotional depth in the depiction of human figures. Human figures are often portrayed as bulky and lacking emotion, contrasting sharply with detailed representations of animals, which are depicted with vitality and realism. This stylistic choice may reflect a cultural emphasis on strength, authority, and royal power rather than on individual emotional expression.

Bronze Age Collapse and the Rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire

Overview

• Timeline: The Bronze Age collapse marked a significant turning point around 1100 BCE in Mainland Greece, leading to dramatic cultural and political changes across the Mediterranean.

• Mycenaean Decline: The collapse saw the abandonment of most Mycenaean sites, which resulted in Greeks adopting nomadic lifestyles. The shift from urban living led to a loss of administrative and infrastructural capabilities, causing upheaval in social structures.

• Greek Dark Age (ca. 1100-900 BCE): This period witnessed the loss of literacy and the decline of trade networks, resulting in a largely illiterate society wherein survival took priority over cultural production. The arts suffered significantly during this time, reflecting a profound cultural regression.

• Cultural Fragmentation: The illustrious history and achievements of the Mycenaean civilization faded but were not entirely erased; their legacies persisted in fragmentary forms, hinting at ancient traditions in future cultures.

• Wider Disruptions: The decline was not isolated to Greece; it echoed throughout the Mediterranean, impacting cultures like the Hittites and New Kingdom Egypt, both of which experienced turmoil and decline during this chaotic era.

• Contributing Factors: Factors such as climate change and disease were instrumental in political fragmentation, destabilizing societies through agricultural failure and resulting famines. These natural disasters disrupted food supplies and trade, exacerbating the societal collapse.

• Emergence of Smaller Cultures: Amidst the chaos, smaller cultures, including the Phoenicians and the Kingdom of Israel, began to emerge with their own identities and distinct trade networks, signaling a shift towards greater autonomy and cultural reformation.

The Iron Age and the Rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire

• The transition into the Iron Age led to the emergence of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as a formidable political and military force in the region.

The Art of the Assyrians

• Artistic Characteristics: Assyrian art is marked by depictions of brutal conquests and military victories while also showcasing complex narratives through about 30,000 clay tablets, which encompass various subjects, including the notable “flood tablet” from the Epic of Gilgamesh illustrating the blending of mythology and history.

The Assyrian Invasion and Empire Expansion

• Late Bronze Age Turmoil: The Late Bronze Age is characterized by invasions from various peoples, including the Elamites, leading to social and political upheaval.

• Assyrian Identity: The Assyrians, inhabitants of the city of Ashur, were a Semitic-speaking group that revered and maintained many Sumerian traditions, reflecting a historical continuity amidst cultural changes.

• Military Dominance: Renowned for their military prowess, the Assyrians were ruthless in suppressing rebellions and expanding their territory. At its zenith (9th-7th centuries BCE), the Neo-Assyrian Empire extended over vast territories, including modern-day Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, and parts of Turkey and Iran.

• Capital Cities: Key capitals of the empire included Kalhu (Nimrud), Dur Sharukkin (Khorsabad), and Nineveh, each strategically positioned along the Tigris River to facilitate trade, travel, and military movements.

Neo-Assyrian Sculpture: Lamassu Figures

• Symbolic Importance: The lamassu, a mythical creature depicted as a human-headed winged lion, served as divine guardians, symbolizing strength, intelligence, and speed, namely protecting cities from evil while embodying royal authority.

• Artistic Techniques: These sculptures were often placed at city entrances to intimidate visitors and were typically carved from a single block of stone, highlighting the craftsmanship.

• Perspective in Art: The carvings featured artistic perspective techniques creating different visual experiences based on viewing angles; for instance, they appear to have five legs when viewed from a three-quarter angle, adding dynamism to their presence. This artistic device was aimed at portraying strength and guardianship in the presence of onlookers.

Neo-Assyrian Architecture and Planning: Palace of Sargon II

• Citadel Design: The Palace of Sargon II serves as an example of Neo-Assyrian architectural sophistication, designed as an enclosed citadel with grand entrance gates to reflect the king’s overwhelming power.

• Ziggurat Integration: Architecturally, ziggurats were incorporated into palace complexes, demonstrating a merging of religious and political authority.

• Materials and Themes: The mud-brick constructions were adorned with elaborate stone relief sculptures that primarily emphasize themes of war and the king’s might, highlighting the storytelling aspects integral to their cultural identity.

Neo-Assyrian Relief Sculpture

• Artistic Techniques: Relief sculptures of this period employed hierarchical scales and registers, with techniques like ‘twisted perspective’ in artistic depiction.

• Stylization of Figures: Human figures are often bulky and lack emotional nuance, contrasting sharply with the realistic and vitality-rich portrayals of animals, reflecting a cultural emphasis on strength and authority over individual emotional representations.

• Themes in Art: The recurring themes of royal power, depicted through lion hunts, warfare, and divine kingship, correlate with recorded historical events, such as the Siege of Lachish (Israel).

The Kingdom of Kush and Egypt

• Rise of Kush: In the late 8th century BCE, the Kingdom of Kush ascending to prominence even ruled Egypt during the 25th Dynasty. Kings like Taharqa honored and integrated Egyptian traditions while imbuing them with distinct Nubian elements that showcased their unique cultural identity.

• Architectural Legacy: Nubian pyramids, while larger than their Egyptian counterparts, retained connections to Egyptian architectural styles, emphasizing the rich cultural interplay between these neighboring civilizations.

Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Ishtar Gate

• Post-Assyrian Era: Following the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BCE, Babylon rose under the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar II, leading to a renaissance characterized by architectural grandeur including the Ishtar Gate, famed for its cobalt blue glazed bricks and depictions of sacred animals symbolizing royal power.

The Persian Empire and Persepolis

• Achaemenid Rule: The Achaemenid Persians, respected for their tolerance towards local customs, managed to conquer and integrate the remnants of the Assyrian Empire, forming a vast territory mirroring the power dynamics of earlier civilizations.

• Cultural Integration: Persepolis, serving as the empire's capital, featured distinct architectural styles that combined elements from various conquered regions, emphasizing a multicultural influence.

Key Architectural Features of Persepolis

• City Layout: The structured grid layout reflects efficiency reminiscent of previous Assyrian designs.

• Gate of All Nations: This significant entrance features lamassu figures, indicating respect and inclusion of diverse cultures within the empire.

• Apadana Hall: The Audience Hall (Apadana) facilitated tributes and large gatherings, visually reinforcing power relationships and a sense of unity among subject peoples.

Relief Sculpture and Cultural Representation

• Artistic Depictions: Persian relief sculptures distinctive focus on peaceful tributes contrasts with the Assyrian focus on military conquest. This shift illustrates the evolving narrative of power during the Persian period, emphasizing harmony and diplomatic relations.

• Subject Autonomy: Persian art celebrated the autonomy of subject peoples while maintaining a tribute system, balancing local customs with Imperial authority to sustain economic prosperity.

Coins and Mass Media

• Daric Coinage: The introduction of the “daric” coin marks an important evolution in art and commerce, disseminating images of kings and serving to influence the economic landscape through enhanced trade across the region.

Greek Influence and Emergence from the Dark Age

• Cultural Revival: Cultural development in Greece began to resume around 900 BCE, fostering the emergence of city-states or poleis, which became centers of political and cultural life.

• Innovative Pottery Styles: New ceramic styles burgeoned during the Geometric and Orientalizing periods, reflective of increased interactions with Eastern Mediterranean cultures and unveiling technological advancements in artistic expression.

Geometric and Orientalizing Phases in Greek Pottery

• Geometric Period (9th-8th centuries BCE): This era is noted for its vases featuring geometric patterns and human figures, often utilized in mourning rituals, laying the groundwork for early artistic identity in Greek culture.

• Orientalizing Period (7th century): The Corinth production dominance introduces the black-figure style, heavily influenced by Eastern motifs, which would later facilitate Greek expansion in trade and cultural exchanges essential for the advancements in art and society during this pivotal period.

Study Questions

• Discussion of Empires: Describe the fundamental facts about the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Achaemenid Persian Empires.

• Art Traditions: Examine the continuity of early Mesopotamian traditions in the art forms of these cultures.

• External Influences: Identify external influences present in the artworks and cultural practices during this period.

• Unique Characteristics: Discuss the subject matter and stylistic approaches distinctive to the art of these civilizations.

• Key Terms: Familiarize with terms and techniques relevant to this module, including: Bronze Age collapse, Greek Dark Age, lamassu, Nimrud ivories, Kingdom of Kush, glazed brick, axis mundi, apadana, and differences between Geometric and Orientalizing pottery.

Ruins of and Reliefs from Persepolis, 521 - 465 BCE

• Subject: Architectural ruins and relief sculptures that represent the ceremonial and administrative capital of the Achaemenid Empire.

• Culture: Achaemenid Persian

• Period: Achaemenid Empire, 6th century BCE

• Medium: Stone reliefs and architecture (mud-brick and stone).

• Historical Context: Persepolis was constructed during the reign of Darius I and served as a key symbol of the empire's power and diversity, showcasing various cultural influences in its architecture and decorative themes.

The Ruins of and Reliefs from Persepolis display several stylistic features characteristic of the Achaemenid Persian Empire:

• Architectural Layout: The layout of Persepolis follows an organized grid pattern, reminiscent of earlier Assyrian designs, which facilitated efficient administration and ceremonial functions.

• Monumentality: The structures, including the Gate of All Nations and Apadana Hall, emphasize grand scale, showcasing the empire's strength and power through monumental architecture.

• Relief Sculpture: Relief sculptures primarily focus on peaceful tributes rather than military conquest, contrasting with Assyrian art's emphasis on warfare. This shift illustrates a narrative of power that emphasizes harmony and diplomatic relations.

• Inclusion of Diverse Cultures: The artwork features a variety of styles and motifs from different cultures within the empire, emphasizing the multicultural makeup of Achaemenid Persia. The lamassu figures and other motifs reflect respect and inclusion of various subject peoples.

• Realism and Detail: While humans are often stylized, animals are portrayed with vitality and realism, highlighting detailed craftsmanship. Reliefs exhibit intricate detailing, showcasing the artisans' skills and attention to embellishment.

• Symbolism: The reliefs often depict tributes from different nations, highlighting the political relationships within the empire, and signify the tribute system that maintained the Achaemenid authority while respecting local customs.

The subject matter of the Ruins of and Reliefs from Persepolis includes various depictions of tributes presented by diverse subject peoples, emphasizing political relationships within the Achaemenid Empire. The artwork often illustrates officials and delegations from different nations arriving at the capital to present gifts and tributes to the king, signifying loyalty and the acceptance of his rule. Additionally, motifs include architectural elements that exemplify the grandeur of treasury and ceremonial spaces, reflecting the empire's power and cultural diversity. The iconography conveyed in these reliefs symbolizes the strength and authority of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, showcasing the king's role as protector and ruler over a vast multicultural realm. The inclusion of various cultural motifs signifies respect for local customs and highlights the empire's integration and management of its diverse subjects. The detailed representations of animals alongside human figures serve to enhance the narrative of vitality and strength associated with the ruling class and divine favor.

The Ruins of and Reliefs from Persepolis are significant as they embody the cultural and political ethos of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. They reflect typical features of Achaemenid architecture and art through their monumental scale and integration of diverse cultural influences from various regions under Persian rule.

Significance:

• Cultural Representation: The artwork showcases the empire’s ambition to unite a diverse set of peoples while celebrating local customs through its reliefs and architectural forms. This reflects a typical characteristic of the Achaemenid approach to governance, which valued diplomacy alongside military might.

• Function: Persepolis served not only as a ceremonial capital but also as a political hub where tributes were presented and alliances solidified. The reliefs functioned to communicate the power and authority of the king, emphasizing his divine right to rule and his role as a protector of the empire’s subjects.

• Contextual Understanding: To understand the significance of the ruins and reliefs, one must consider the historical context of the Achaemenid Empire, which included its vast territorial expansion, administrative innovations, and the integration of various cultures. Recognizing the political dynamics of the time, such as the tribute system and the role of the king in maintaining order among diverse populations, is essential to grasp the full impact and meaning of the work. Additionally, understanding earlier influences from Mesopotamian and Egyptian art and architecture can aid in appreciating how Persepolis represented a blend of these traditions with new artistic expressions unique to the Persian Empire.

To identify works from Iron Age Mesopotamia and Persia, you can look for specific characteristics and themes that correlate with each period:

1. Neo-Assyrian Empire (Iron Age; 9th-7th centuries BCE):

   • Artistic Techniques: Look for relief sculptures that depict brutal conquests, military victories, and royal power. The use of hierarchical scale and 'twisted perspective' is evident in these works.

   • Iconography: Common motifs include lamassu (human-headed winged lions) as protective symbols at entrances.

   • Materials: Expect to see stone reliefs and mud-brick architecture adorned with intricate carvings.

   • Cultural Context: Often features depictions of military campaigns and tributes from conquered regions, illustrating the empire's dominance.

2. Neo-Babylonian Empire (Post-Assyrian; 612 - 539 BCE):

   • Architectural Features: Look for the Ishtar Gate, known for its vibrant glazed bricks and detailed depictions of sacred animals symbolizing power.

   • Art Style: This period emphasized lavishness, illustrated through elaborate decorative styles in ceramics and architectural complexes.

   • Symbolism: Contrasts with Neo-Assyrian work by focusing more on peaceful tributes rather than conquest.

3. Achaemenid Persian Empire (6th century - 330 BCE):

   • Architectural Layout: Check for organized grid patterns in city layouts, such as those in Persepolis; includes monumental structures like the Gate of All Nations and the Apadana Hall.

   • Cultural Diversity: Artistic works from this period often reflect various cultures coexisting, shown by diverse motifs in relief sculptures depicting tributes from subject nations.

   • Themes: The focus shifts towards peaceful governance, tribute relationships, and diplomatic representation rather than outright military conquest.

   • Artistic Representation: Realistic portrayals of animals alongside stylized human figures show a nuanced approach to artistic expression, as seen in their relief sculptures.

To identify works from Iron Age Mesopotamia and Persia, you can look for specific characteristics and themes that correlate with each period:

1. Neo-Assyrian Empire (Iron Age; 9th-7th centuries BCE):

   • Artistic Techniques: Look for relief sculptures that depict brutal conquests, military victories, and royal power. The use of hierarchical scale and 'twisted perspective' is evident in these works.

   • Iconography: Common motifs include lamassu (human-headed winged lions) as protective symbols at entrances.

   • Materials: Expect to see stone reliefs and mud-brick architecture adorned with intricate carvings.

   • Cultural Context: Often features depictions of military campaigns and tributes from conquered regions, illustrating the empire's dominance.

2. Neo-Babylonian Empire (Post-Assyrian; 612 - 539 BCE):

   • Architectural Features: Look for the Ishtar Gate, known for its vibrant glazed bricks and detailed depictions of sacred animals symbolizing power.

   • Art Style: This period emphasized lavishness, illustrated through elaborate decorative styles in ceramics and architectural complexes.

   • Symbolism: Contrasts with Neo-Assyrian work by focusing more on peaceful tributes rather than conquest.

3. Achaemenid Persian Empire (6th century - 330 BCE):

   • Architectural Layout: Check for organized grid patterns in city layouts, such as those in Persepolis; includes monumental structures like the Gate of All Nations and the Apadana Hall.

   • Cultural Diversity: Artistic works from this period often reflect various cultures coexisting, shown by diverse motifs in relief sculptures depicting tributes from subject nations.

   • Themes: The focus shifts towards peaceful governance, tribute relationships, and diplomatic representation rather than outright military conquest.

   • Artistic Representation: Realistic portrayals of animals alongside stylized human figures show a nuanced approach to artistic expression, as seen in their relief sculptures.

Early Greek Pottery

1. Geometric Period (9th-8th centuries BCE):

   • Characterized by intricate geometric patterns and stylized depictions of human figures.

   • Vases from this period often featured scenes of mourning rituals, indicating a form of early storytelling through art.

2. Orientalizing Period (7th century BCE):

   • Marked by increased influence from Eastern Mediterranean cultures, particularly in motifs and decorative styles.

   • Corinth emerged as a leading center for vase production during this time, innovating the black-figure technique that allowed for more detailed human and animal representations.

3. Cultural Significance:

   • Early Greek pottery reflects the evolving artistic styles and cultural exchanges facilitating the eventual development of sophisticated city-states (poleis).

   • The pottery style evolution highlights the transition from geometric abstraction to more naturalistic forms as the Greek world became connected with neighboring cultures.

Early Greek Pottery

1. Geometric Period (9th-8th centuries BCE):

   • Characterized by intricate geometric patterns and stylized depictions of human figures.

   • Vases from this period often featured scenes of mourning rituals, indicating a form of early storytelling through art.

2. Orientalizing Period (7th century BCE):

   • Marked by increased influence from Eastern Mediterranean cultures, particularly in motifs and decorative styles.

   • Corinth emerged as a leading center for vase production during this time, innovating the black-figure technique that allowed for more detailed human and animal representations.

3. Cultural Significance:

   • Early Greek pottery reflects the evolving artistic styles and cultural exchanges facilitating the eventual development of sophisticated city-states (poleis).

   • The pottery style evolution highlights the transition from geometric abstraction to more naturalistic forms as the Greek world became connected with neighboring cultures.

When identifying artwork from the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Achaemenid Persian Empires, as well as early Greek pottery, here are some key tips:

Neo-Assyrian Empire (9th - 7th centuries BCE)

• Artistic Techniques: Look for relief sculptures that illustrate brutal conquests and military victories, showcasing hierarchical scale and 'twisted perspective.'

• Iconography: Common motifs include lamassu (human-headed winged lions) at entrances, symbolizing protection.

• Materials: Expect detailed stone reliefs and mud-brick architecture, often elaborately carved.

• Cultural Context: Artworks usually depict military campaigns and tribute presentations, reflecting the empire's dominance.

Neo-Babylonian Empire (Post-Assyrian; 612 - 539 BCE)

• Architectural Features: Identify the Ishtar Gate with its vibrant glazed bricks and depictions of sacred animals, a hallmark of this period.

• Art Style: Look for lavish decorative styles in ceramics and architectural complexes, emphasizing beauty and intricate designs.

• Symbolism: Artwork tends to focus more on peaceful tributes rather than conquest, contrasting with earlier styles.

Achaemenid Persian Empire (6th century - 330 BCE)

• Architectural Layout: Seek organized grid patterns in city layouts, such as Persepolis, featuring monumental structures like the Gate of All Nations and Apadana Hall.

• Cultural Diversity: Artistic works reflect a blend of various cultural motifs and styles, emphasizing coexistence among different peoples.

• Themes: Focus shifts towards diplomacy, tribute relationships, and governance, with artworks showcasing harmonious political dynamics.

Early Greek Pottery

• Geometric Period (9th-8th centuries BCE): Look for intricate geometric patterns and mourning scenes, reflecting early storytelling.

• Orientalizing Period (7th century BCE): Identify the influence of Eastern Mediterranean motifs, particularly through Corinthian black-figure techniques allowing for detailed representation of human and animal forms.

• Cultural Significance: Observe transitions from geometric abstraction to naturalistic styles as indicative of cultural exchanges that aided the development of Greek city-states.

These characteristics will help in identifying and appreciating the artworks from these distinct periods and cultures.