Introduction

• European nations have a long history of increasing, wealth and power by seeking overseas possessions

  • 16th Century, spanish colonialism of the Americas

  • 18th Century, Anglo French Colonialism of North America

  • 19th Century(Late), European interest in Africa

• As European interests on the Americas declines, Europeans began looking elsewhere, such as Africa and Asia

Economic and political motives for imperial expansion

• The desire to find and exploit new trading opportunities had been one of the main reasons for the imperial expansion of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries

• Following the policy of Mercantilism, the most powerful EU nations aimed to increase wealth through trade, gaining overseas possessions provided a cheap source of raw materials and labour, and valuable products like spices and silk which were not available in europe, creating a lucrative market

• Many european businessmen became wealthy by exploiting this favourable trading opportunity, an example was the slave triangle

  • Slaves picked up from africa

  • Slaves sold in Americas for products like Cotton, tobacco and sugar

  • Products brought to europe and sold

• Empires were not stable nor permanent, by the late 18th century, many empires were fighting expensive wars, and the latin empires were almost non existent

• Moreover New theories that stated a nations wealth was based off its industrial capacity, had increased desire for industrialisation rather than imperialism

Economic Motives for Imperialism

Industrialization

• During the 19th century however, the industrial revolution meant that european industry expanded rapidly, goods were produced on such a scale that it was essential to find new sources of raw materials with which to make them, and new markets to sell them, as well as entrepreneurs who wanted new places to invest their wealth

• Since britain was the first country to undergo an industrial revolution they had many advantages like being able to use steam powered machinery to produce iron and steel and textiles, with railways and steamships allowing them to transport goods more efficiently

• As more countries industrialised, Britain and other countries had to search for new markets.

The Long Depression

• This competition was enhanced by a long period of price deflation that had followed the industrial revolution, as production was outstripping demand, so many businesses were forced to lower prices, declining wages and leading to job losses, as a result both industrialists and citizens were putting pressure on the governments to help the economy so european nations began looking for overseas possessions

Competition for raw materials

• Just as europe's nations needed to find new markets for their increasing outputs, they also needed new sources of raw materials like cotton rubber and tin, large quantities of these resources can be found in Africa and asia 

Political motives for imperialism

Nationalism

• By 1871, new nations and new borders in europe were agreed, and only war could change this, and war is what all nations wanted to avoid, since there was little possibility of expansion within Europe, countries needed to look elsewhere for enhancement of industrialisation and increasing wealth, power, prestige and influence

• The late 19th century saw an increase in nationalism in europe as Germany and Italy were keen to establish themselves as newly unified states, and france was determined to recover from its defeat in the franco-Prussian war

• European governments saw overseas possessions as symbols of national pride and power

Social Policy

• By 1870 political power in europe was in the hands of wealthy industrialists and landowners who had alot to gain from imperialism, however with industrialisation came the emergence of the working class which demanded socioeconomic and political reform

• So governments portrayed imperialism as a benefit to everyone, arguing that imperialism would give governments the finance to pay for social reform

Strategic control of key regions

• Prior to 1869, trading with India and the far East had involved Europeans taking a treacherous trip around the cape of africa, to protect their ships, britain established a colony here

• Between 1859-69, britain and france financed the Suez Canal Company, which constructed a canal linking the Mediterranean and the Red Seas, cutting the trip from London to Mumbai by 8000 km

• Amidst political tension in Egypt in 1882, Britain took control of Egypt, many historians believe British control of Egypt encouraged other nations to control key areas in Africa and worldwide

Emergence of New imperialism

Nature of ‘New Imperialism’

Geographic scope

• Whereas previous imperialism was focused on the new world, New imperialism was based on Africa and Asia. Africa was rich with  raw materials like rubber and tin

• The crumbling of the chinese empire offered opportunities to increase trade likes with the Far east

Maintaining Peaceful relations

• Although the rush to acquire new possessions involved rivalry across europe, there was an attempt to prevent this leading to warfare characterised by early imperialism

• For example the Treaty of Berlin signed in 1885, laid down the rules in which imperialism could be carried out

New Imperial countries

• Earlier imperialism was carried out by the main EU powers, Britain, France, Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands, Massive industrial growth had led to the USA to seek control over central and south america, while Japan seeked greater power in Asia

Factors enabling New Imperialism

• Medical advancements

  • In the 18th century africa was known for its dangerous diseases like malaria, impairing exploration of the interior, the medicine quinine enabled treatment for malaria allowing the interior to be explored

• Technological Advancements

  • The industrial revolution led to new methods of producing irol and steel very efficiently, facilitating development of railways and steamships, making transport easier

  • Steamships in particular were useful for navigating rivers like the Congo and the Niger, giving easier access to the interior

  • Telegraph networks were being set up, giving imperial nations easier communication to their colonies

  • Development of fast firing rifles and machine guns dwarfed the weapons of Native inhabitants of colonies, therefore, Europeans could take over land with next to no resistance

Opposition to slavery

• By 1820, most EU govs had banned the slave trade, however it was known that slavery was still commonplace in Africa, with African chieftans bartering in human lives, so Euros believed they had a moral duty to end slavery

Theory of Racial superiority

• In the early 19th century, scientists began developing theories regarding the classification of race groups, with Whites at the top above asians and Africans

• The publication of Darwin's book on the Origins of Species, was misinterpreted widely to give scientific evidence for this theory, implying some races were less evolved and thus were less human than others. These views were widely accepted in the USA and Europe, who now believed they had a duty to bring civilisation and order to the subhumans, with this in mind, many European nations had undermined the interests of the natives, believing they, as the superior race, could dictate what they wanted.

Scramble for Africa

• In 1870, only about 10% of Africa was in foreign control, most of it being coastal regions, due to the mysterious and dangerous notion conceived by the African interior, however with medical and technological advancements, explorers began to move into the interior

• Some explorers were missionaries, determined to bring Christianity and Civility to the savages, while others were financed by rich entrepreneurs in search of raw materials and trading opportunities

• As increasing exploration reduced European fears of Africa, the opportunities offered became increasingly apparant, and by 1900, 90% of Africa was under European control

Britain

• Britains original concern was protecting its trade rutes to the indian ocean, establishing colonies in Egypt and South Africa

• The discovery of Gold and Diamonds in the Boers republic in Transvaal, alerted britain to potential economic rewards from further land exploration in africa

• Britain moved quickly to secure as much of Africa as possible before the other Euros discovered the potential, with Cecil Rhodes exploration, Britain took control of most of Southern and Eastern africa, with their African empire stretching from Cairo to Cape town, accounting for 30% of the African population

• Many Americans were heavily critical of Britain's imperial actions, being a former British colony themselves.

France

• While britain concentrated on Eastern and southern Africa, France was active in the west to Northwest

• Earlier in the 19th century, political dispites and the desire for military success led France to invade Algeria, and as a result of slave trade involvement, controlled the coastal regions of Senegal

• The French then moved inland in search of Raw Materials, like Palm oil and timber and new markets to sell their industrial output

• With the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, it was seen as vital to increase prestige via empire

Belgium

• Belgium was a new state established in 1830, with their King Leopold II determined to enhance his country and his own wealth, by claiming the congo basin, seeing the enormous benefit to gain from the abundance of rubber in the congo, Leopold was willing to use his own wealth to pay for the colonisation of the Congo

Portugal

• Following the Treaty of Tordesillas Portugal took Mozambique and Angola

Germany

• Germany was a very young nation at the time of the Scramble, only being unified by Bismarck after the war in 1871, Germany’s central position in Europe, as well as being surrounded by enemies, led Chancellor Bismarck to focus on security and alliances rather than imperialism

• However in 1881, under pressure from German industrialists, Bismarck changed his policy from security to African Imperialism, with a frenzy of German activity giving them the region of Kamerun and German East Africa as well as South West Africa

• By the Time of Germany’s entry into the scramble most of the profitable areas of Africa were claimed, so Germany's control of these regions cost her alot

Impact of European Imperialism on Africa

• European Imperialism had a large effect on Africa and its people

• There were some benefits to Africa during the period of Colonisation

  • They developed States with Administrative and Governmental systems

  • They provided education for inhabitants

  • They provided systems of Transport and communication, like roads, railways and telegraph lines

  • They increased irrigation and and water sanitation, as wel as healthcare in the region

  • They introduced more efficient methods of farming and higher producing crops

• However there were of course the negatives

  • Africa was partitioned according to the needs of Europeans who did not look at the already existing borders, therefore the new boundaries were drawn with no respect to the different tribes, languages and cultures

  • Many African leaders were killed or exiled for resisting attempts of colonialism

  • While in many of its Administrative areas of Africa, Britain established an indirect rule, whereas other European nations directly ruled their colonies, establishing an administrative hierarchy with themselves at the top, playing into the theory of racial superiority

  • African culture was undermined in the construction of western style civilisation in the region

  • Monetary systems dumbfounded the African Economy

  • Since land ownership was now European, many farm owners lost their land and had to work as cheap labour

  • There was extremely large scale exploitation of the continents resources, with raw materials being taken by the colonisers to fuel their industrial machine back home preventing an African industrial revolution

  • Exploitation of the continent led to large scale inhumanity, Leopold of Belgium amassed a fortune from rubber trees in the congo, by using forced labour, and mutilating or killing workers who failed to meet their quota

  • African resistance usually led to harsh reprisals, for example, a rebellion of the Herero and Nama tribes in German SW africa, was put down and the Germans drew them out into the desert, where many died of malnutrition or thirst, many interpret this incident as Genocide.

Reasons and Extent of Domestic support for European Expansion

Britain

• Even before New Imperialism, Britain boasted a vast Empire, larger than any other European country, the British people were accustomed to this and the empire was a symbol of National Pride, power and prestige

• Support for the British Empire was encouraged from a young age, through compulsory state education, with maps of the empire displayed in classrooms, and with the rise in literacy, more people read newspapers, owned and controlled by wealthy pro imperialists, who aimed to shape public opinion in favour of overseas expansion

• The papers would often exaggerate British action in civilising the savages, but it did enforce the theory of Racial superiority and encouraged nationalism within the readers

• Popular literature also shaped public opinion in favour of imperialism, for example Kim by Rudyard Kipling, justified British control of India, implying that the Indian People were lucky that the British were willing to help them, and had shown cooperation with the british, enforcing the idea of the White saviour complex

• Literature for young boys published stories of British Heroes fighting valiantly to defend the empire from the barbaric savages determined to steal what belonged to Britain

• Common items like tea bags and tins has pictures of foreign lands plastered with the Union Jack

• With all this, British maltreatment of the locals and exploitation was ignored.

France

• Unlike Britain, the french government played the leading role in rallying support for imperialism

• French pride was wrecked in their defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, so gaining overseas possessions seemed like a surefire way of restoring prestige

• Patriotism was fostered via the introduction of the state education system, where children were encouraged to be proud of their countries achievements, navy, and empire, being taught they had a duty to their country, which was superior to all others and had the right to spread its culture to the world

• France also developed a ‘Mission Civilisatrice’ in which missionary societies worked to spread catholicism in Africa, the Government used this to show they were bringing Christianity to Africa

• At the same time, the gov was proclaiming the socioeconomic and political advantages of overseas possesions, it was argued that imperialism would enhance the wealth of France allowing social reform

• Many french journalists argued that France as the superior race had the right to civilise the inferior races

Germany

• Germany was different as it was only unified in 1871, and it was focusing on security, eventually its policy changed, as the gov saw economic benefits and social benefits in promoting Nationalism in the new country formed of people of different cultural backgrounds, uniting them into a German Nationality, imperialism provided this and like France, the government stressed the enormous social and economic benefit imperialism would bring to its people

• German missionaries were at the Forefront of German Imperialism, with the Justification of bringing Christianity to pagan populations, they provided the Gov with information and connections that facilitated German acquisition of territory

• German Nationalism and the countries right and responsibility to extend influence into foreign lands was promoted in newspapers literature, Art and even postcards

Opposition to Imperialism

• In all 3 countries mentioned the positive aspects of imperialism were heavily stressed, meaning that the majority of Europeans supported their countries involvement in Imperialism, however other interpretations suggest that many Europeans showed little interest in imperialism

• What is clear however, is that some were opposed to imperialism, for many reasons

  • Some religious leaders, and intellectuals argued that it was morally wrong to seize  land belonging to local inhabitants

  • A british Economist John Hobson in his 1902 book concluded that New Imperialism had harmed britain Politically, socially, and economically, it had not been cost effective; while the rich benefited from it, there was little increase in british trade and the advantages of overseas possessions were outweighed by the cost of maintaining such possessions.

  • Hobson also viewed that It had increased tensions with other Imperial nations, tensions only increased by British involvement in costly wars, like the Boer wars, Hobson claimed the High expenditure to maintain the Empire meant it was impossible to deliver promised social reforms

  • Hobsons views reflected the views of other European Economists and politicians, people with these views became known as Liberals, who campaigned that tax free and greater trading links within europe would be in benefit to all of them compared to imperialism

  • Hobsons view that imperialism created tension amongst EU was reflected in Bismarck's early refusal to colonialism as he feared conflict with other nations

  • Anti Imperialistic sentiments grew in britain with the long and expensive campaigns to keep control of south africa, Liberals like Lloyd George accused the government of Barbaric strategies to preserve and extend influence in south africa

• While there were frequent challenges to specific aspects of imperialism, the fundamental principles of imperialism were accepted; even if that meant not supported, by most europeans.