3.5: Media

• Key ideas: Digital media are:

  • defined by the convergence of computing, communication and content.

  • created and distributed through multiple channels and platforms

  • associated with significant opportunities and dilemmas in digital society

• Media: any communication channel that serves as a medium to enable information to reach a wide group of people.

  • Some types of media include: print media (published newspapers, books) and mass media (news channel on TV and radio)

• With the widespread use and availability of internet, our media consumption has moved online, which is known as;

• Digital media: information (such as video, audio, images and other content) which is consumed online. Additionally, information can also be created, encoded and stored before sharing.

  • Anytime a user accesses a website or app, it is either consuming or creating media.

3.5A: Types of digital media

• Media and Web 1.0

  • In the early days of the internet, digital media mostly consisted of web pages which contained text and images.

  • As bandwidth increased, the internet had the ability to host video, animation and audio recordings.

  • Although digital technology changed the speed and volume of media it still fulfilled its traditional role - entertain, educate and be a channel for public discussion.

• Media and Web 2.0

  • Introduction of Web 2.0 technologies such as blogs, podcasts, wikis and social media.

    • Enabled increase in volume of user-generated content and changed the way the public perceived local and global news.

  • Real-World Example: News from Social Media

    • 2010: CNN reported that 75% of surveyed users got their news from email and social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter).

      • This prompted media companies to adapt, seeking trending subjects and employing hashtags

        • Trending: topics which experience a sudden surge in popularity on social media for a limited amount of time.

        • Hashtag: word or phrase used to classify or categorize the accompanying text. Preceded by (#) symbol.

    • 2015: Traditional media companies were producing more content targeted at social media, especially live video streaming.

  • Real-World Example: First Viral Meme (1996)

    • Animation of a baby dancing, created by graphic designer Michael Girard.

    • The animation was created to demonstrate the capabilities of software but soon converted into a gif and shared.

  • Memes can easily gain popularity through social media. They have developed from political or cultural topics to anything that is funny or relatable.

• Media and Web 3.0

  • The advent of artificial intelligence has influenced the media industry, from content creator to consumer experience.

  • Content Creation

    • Content creation and our ability to manipulate images, audio and video has been possible due to the advancement in artificial intelligence, cloud computing and graphics technology.

    • Tools which are able to face-swap (superimposing one face into another) or lip-sync, are readily available and often referred as deepfake;

      • Deepfake: synthetic media created with the use of deep learning and/or artificial intelligence.

    • Initially, the tools had innocent uses, such as the popularity of face-swapping filters in Snapchat. However, malicious uses of deepfake have contributed to fake news;

      • Fake news: false or misleading information presented as news.

    • Deepfake used for fake news have the aim of damaging reputations, fabricating evidence and defrauding the public.

    • Real-World Example: INVISIBLE Music Video (2021)

      • Band Duran Duran teamed up with Nested Mind to generate a music video using artificial intelligence.

      • The artificial intelligence used lyrics, pictures, music and other information in order to create the video

    • Real-World Example: UK Energy Firm (2019)

      • An unnamed UK company was tricked into transferring £220,000 (US$260,000) after they received a deepfake audio technology impersonating the CEO.

    • Real-World Example: Jordan Peele impersonation (2018)

      • Actor Jordan Peele worked with Buzzfeed to create a deep fake video of Barack Obama.

      • The video intention was to raise awareness about the potential harm of deepfakes in spreading fake news.

  • Artificial intelligence and the consumer’s media experience

    • Artificial intelligence can be used positively by media companies to predict demand and adjust their media production.

    • For example, Netflix can use it to offer recommendations, therefore enhancing the user experience.

    • Media companies still need to search for ways to effectively manage data which can train artificial intelligence algorithms.

  • Electronic games

    • The electronic games industry is another digital technology which has evolved alongside social media.

    • The development of internet-enabled gaming consoles and personals computers has enabled the game industry;

      • To reach untapped audiences - such as senior citizens or middle-aged adults who play games on their smartphones

      • Create a lucrative industry - ESports had grown since 2000, and in 2019 a US$ 100 million prize was awarded at the Fortnite World Cup.

    • Additionally, the wide use of platforms such as YouTube and Twitch have supported the growth of professional gamers.

3.5B: Characteristics of digital media

• Although digital media serves the same purpose as traditional media (entertain, educate, provide platform for expression), it has some unique characteristics like:

  • Rapid sharing: either through uploading (e.g. a video on YouTube) or reposting it (e.g. X (formerly Twitter).

  • Efficient storage: data can be stored in one place, due to development of storage technologies. For instance, a user can store mobile phone data in cloud computing while using social media.

  • Interactivity: media is more engaging due to interactive media in web design, which could potentially motivate users to revisit web pages, post comments and make recommendations to friends.

    • This is different from traditional media which is ‘one way’ - audiences could receive media but could not respond or interact.

  • Non-linear content or hypertextuality: Webpages use hyperlinks, which allows users to click and visit pages, giving them the option to navigate media how they want and in any order.

    • Traditional media used to be linear and media companies dictated how users navigate media.

  • Global networks: users can interact more globally - they can pool sources together more easily and have a wider range of sources of information.

  • Virtual: users can communicate virtually through a range of technologies and in different ways, choosing how to present themselves.

  • Convergence of digital media: users now communicate using more than one form of digital media at once.

    • Examples: calls, which can include voice and live video or message, which include text, voice message, emojis or an image.

3.5C: Immersive digital media

• Digital media can go beyond user interactivity and provide immersive experiences for users in a virtual life, based on simulations.

• Virtual reality (VR)

  • Definition: a simulation that provides a completely immersive environment for the user.

  • Users typically use a virtual reality headset, goggles or can make a headset out of cardboard at home.

  • Virtual reality is possible by programming 3D objects, through the use of spatial computing;

    • Spatial computing: when physical actions are used as inputs to receive inputs in a 3D space.

      • Actions can receive outputs in three degrees of freedom (3DoF), like 360 video or six degrees of freedom (6DoF), where a user can move freely (backwards and forward) in a virtual space.

  • Business are employing VR to be more competitive in some areas, including:

    • Employee safety training: allows the possibility to make mistakes in a controlled environment without any real-life threats or consequences.

      • Examples: BP and ExxonMobil - employ VR to train employees in work scenarios, such as emergency procedures.

    • Sales and marketing presentation: prospective customers have a better idea of proposals or products by experiencing and interacting with them.

      • Example: Zimmer Biomet - a dental technology provider which creates a virtual dental lab. It allowed dentists to experience and understand how new technologies impacted dental procedures.

    • Design decisions: test and visualize various decisions before making final choice.

    • Virtual workspaces: offer an office-like experience to employees working from home. Companies predict these workspaces will provide a space for casual work discussion which may promote problem solving and creative solutions.

• Augmented reality (AR)

  • Definition: a digital content is overlaid on real world elements or experiences.

    • A readily-available example are filters on Snapchat or similar apps.

  • This technology is mostly used with mobile devices.

  • Industries which are employing AR include:

    • Manufacturing, mining and maritime industries: during the inspection process of machinery, which minimizes interruptions to operations.

    • Education: teachers can present real situations through 3D modeling, making learning more engaging.

• Mixed reality (MR)

  • Definition: a blending of the real world with the digital world to create new experiences.

  • The simulation of real-world system is sometimes called digital twin;

    • Digital twin: a virtual representation of an object or system which represents a real-world/physical object or system.

  • MR and digital twin are widely used in industries which seek to visualize, analyze, maintain and control their valuable assets through a dynamic set of tools.

  • A mix of virtual, augmented and mixed reality are used by industries such as

    • Automotive industry: prospective buyers can try different car customization options.

    • Medicine: doctors can train in a 3D environment before performing surgeries.

    • Tourism: tourists can make virtual tours before booking.

  • Real-World Example: Royal Dutch Shell:

    • Shell created a digital twin for their oil rigs, which are used to effectively manage the real structures, improve safety of the workers, and develop predictive maintenance.

3.5D: Digital media dilemmas

• Media addiction and other psychological concerns

  • Users use social media for entertainment and a way of staying in touch, but an increased used can derive in a

    • Social media addiction: an example of behavioral addiction, which is an uncontrollable urge to use social media for a long period of time.

    • Social media use is linked to short-term dopamine hits, which when quelled can lead to:

      • Low self-esteem, anxiety and depression, a fear of missing out (FOMO).

• Impact on journalism

  • Journalism has transformed to online, real-time reporting, multimedia content and access to global information.

    • In addition, users can personalize their news, going against the monopoly previously held by mass media.

    • Journalists now have to be trained in technical and digital literacy skills.

    • The rapid-nature of digital media also means journalists have to comply with tighter deadlines, write for multiple types of media and avoid misinformation;

      • Misinformation: false or inaccurate information that is mistakenly or negligently created or spread. The intent is not to deceive.

  • Social media had a positive impact for journalists, who can post stories instantly and also create their own following through their personal social media profiles.

  • However, social media also allows amateur journalists (or bad-intentioned users) to post without the same rigorous editorial control or training.

    • Fake news and ‘alternative facts’ damage the credibility of journalistic work.

    • Although these could be easily countered by forming peer-review networks, where journalists review and check each other’s work.

  • Real-World Example: QAnon

    • An American conspiracy theory movement which made unfounded claims allegedly from within the US government administration.

    • Social media companies have taken down many QAnon supporter accounts which coordinated harassment to perceived enemies (politicians, celebrities, journalists) and spread conspiracy theories.

• Media authenticity

  • Rapid advancements in creation and distribution of media is making it more difficult to verify the authenticity of media.

  • Users are using the same source for news and entertainment, allowing fake news (or disinformation) to spread more easily

    • Disinformation: false information deliberately created and spread, with the intent of influencing public opinion or blocking the truth.

    • Fake news normally has a political or criminal nature, and its goal is to promote a political agenda.

    • For instance, Deeptrace, a start-up company, found 7964 deepfake videos circulating in 2019.

  • Real-World Example: Fake news (MIT Research)

    • Data from 126,000 stories tweeted by 3 million users from 2006 to 2017 concluded that fake news spread faster as they stimulate emotions such as surprise, fear and disgust.

      • This study is relevant, since it was published at the time when it was confirmed fake news distorted the 2016 US Presidential elections.

• Ownership of media

  • Intellectual property (IP): outcome of thought or intellectual effort which can range from a new invention to designs or brand names.

    • Intellectual property is also the term used to refer to the legal protection of said creation.

    • IP aims to reward creativity and encourage inventors to share their innovations.

  • Legal rights, such as patents, trademarks and copyright grant the creator the rights to their work and protect them from unauthorized use for a specific period of time.

  • Copyright: legal protection for creators of literary and artistic works (books, music, paintings, films and computer programs), which may also be digital.

    • Copyrights laws operate differently depending on the country, but unauthorized use is considered theft.

    • Copyrighted material can be used by gaining permission from the owner, although there are two licenses which allow materials to be freely modified or distributed

      • Public domain: work is available to the public and is not subject to copyright

      • Fair use: work can be used for study, research, commentary or criticism.

    • Copyrighted work used under ‘fair use’ should be limited by the following considerations:

      • Is work used to create something new?

      • Will it impact the market value of the original work?

      • How much of the original work is being used?

  • Real-World Example: Blurred Lines - Robin Thicke, Pharrell Williams and TI (2013)

    • A court ruled that the song ‘Blurred Lines’ infringed copyright of Marvin Gaye’s ‘Got to give it up’ (1977).

    • Thicke and Williams had to pay a US$5 million fine.

  • Copyleft: owners of original work allow others to use their copyrighted property freely under specific conditions.

    • Example: copyleft software allows users to copy, modify and share their code, with the condition the source code remains open and publicly available.

    • Copyleft licensing is a solution to copyright permissions which are sometimes time-consuming and difficult to obtain. Moreover, these licensing aims to build a community which can collaborate to improve creative works.

    • Creative commons licensing is a type of copyleft. The two most common types of licensing include;

      • CC BY: users can distribute, remix, adapt and build on work as long as attribution is given to the original creator.

        • This is the least restrictive license.

      • CC BY NC ND: users can download and share work while crediting the original creator.

        • The work can not be modified or used commercially.

        • NC ND stands for non-commercial and no derivatives.

        • This is the most restrictive license.

• Censorship and control of media

  • Some users may be in uneven access to digital media due to some governments imposing censorship for the following reasons;

    • Political content: content of political nature which defies or challenges the government narrative.

      • Real-World Example: Cambodia (2018)

        • The government blocked independent new sites two days before the elections.

    • Social content: content which is deemed socially offensive or perceived to be offensive, which can include content related to sexuality, gambling, alcohol and/or illegal drugs.

    • This measure is taken by governments who aim to ‘protect’ citizens from exposure to undesired content.

      • Real-World Example: Uganda (2018)

        • Ugandan communication regulators demanded internet service providers to block access to pornographic sites.

    • Conflict and security: content related to conflicts, militant groups and border conflicts, to avoid citizens from being involved or contributing.

      • Real-World Example: Sri Lanka (2019)

        • Social media access was shut down after a series of bombings, to prevent misinformation and further acts of violence.

    • Internet tools: some governments surveille communications in order to search for keywords within conversations in emails, messages or internet searches.

• Digital media preservation

  • Given the rapid development of digital media, some devices, storage media and data formats have become obsolete.

    • Example: people used to record on video cameras and the video was stored in a magnetic tape during the 1990s.

    • More than a decade later, someone would need to convert the file into a DVD format to be able to access the video.

  • Digital preservation is essential to ensure information is safe, and readable in newer formats or devices when its original formats become obsolete.

    • For instance, computers can launch an older operating system, which can run older softwares. Files can be opened and saved in a new format.