World War I

The Election of 1916

• Distribution of Votes:
  • Woodrow Wilson (Democratic Party): 9,126,063 votes (49% of popular vote), 277 electoral college votes (52%).
  • Charles Hughes (Republican Party): 8,547,030 votes (46% of popular vote), 254 electoral college votes (48%).
  • Other: 5% of popular vote.
• Breaking Down the Vote in Key States:
  • New York: Wilson - 44.5%, Hughes - 51.5%, Other - 4%
  • Illinois: Wilson - 43.3%, Hughes - 52.6%, Other - 4.1%
  • Ohio: Wilson - 51.9%, Hughes - 44.2%, Other - 3.9%
  • Texas: Wilson - 76.9%, Hughes - 17.5%, Other - 5.6%
  • California: Wilson - 46.6%, Hughes - 46.3%, Other - 7.1%
  • Pennsylvania: Wilson - 40.2%, Hughes - 54.3%, Other - 5.5%

U.S. Moves Toward War

• Wilson's Stance: Even while Wilson pursued peace, he advocated for a stronger military, recognizing the potential for U.S. involvement in the war.
• 1916 Election: Wilson ran against Republican Charles Evans Hughes.
  • Democrats portrayed Hughes as a warmonger, despite his neutrality stance.
  • Wilson's campaign slogan: "He kept us out of war!"
  • The election was very close, with late returns from California securing Wilson's victory.

Diplomacy Ends

• Final Plea for Peace: January 1917, Wilson made a final appeal for peace.
• Germany's Decision: Germany decided to renew submarine warfare to break the Allied blockade.
  • Germany warned neutral nations that after February 1, 1917, U-boats would sink any ship nearing Britain.
  • German leaders knew this action would likely bring the U.S. into the war but gambled on defeating the Allies before American troops could arrive.
• Wilson's Response: Wilson broke off diplomatic relations with Germany to protest the U-boat warfare.

The Zimmermann Note

• Discovery: February: The U.S. discovered the Zimmermann telegram.
• Content: Arthur Zimmermann, Germany’s foreign secretary, sent a secret note to the German minister in Mexico.
  • The telegram urged Mexico to attack the U.S. if the U.S declared war on Germany.
  • In return, Germany would help Mexico regain its "lost provinces" (Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico).
• Impact: The Zimmermann telegram caused anti-German sentiment to surge in the United States.

The Russian Revolution

• Events pushing the U.S. closer to war:
  • German submarines sank American merchant ships.
  • The Russian Revolution removed Czar Nicholas II from power.
• Background on Czarist Rule:
  • For centuries, Russian czars ruled with absolute power.
  • Several revolts against czarist rule had occurred in the 1800s and early 1900s, but they failed.
• Impact of World War I on Russia:
  • Initially, Russians united behind the czar.
  • However, heavy losses and economic hardship led to discontent.
• The Revolution:
  • March 1917: Riots over food shortages turned into a revolution, and the czar was forced to step down.
  • Revolutionaries established a provisional government and called for democratic reforms.
• Wilson's Response: Wilson welcomed the Russian Revolution because he supported democracy and opposed allying with an absolute ruler.
  • The revolution made it easier for Wilson to support the Allied cause.

Declaration of War

• Wilson's Address: On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war.
  • He stated that "The world must be made safe for democracy."
  • He assured Americans that entering the war was just and noble.
• Congressional Vote: Congress voted overwhelmingly for war (455 to 56).
  • Jeannette Rankin of Montana, the first woman elected to Congress, voted against the declaration, stating, "I want to stand by my country, but I cannot vote for war. I vote no!"
• Official Declaration: On April 6, the President signed the declaration of war, thrusting the U.S. into World War I.

Americans Prepare for War

• Patriotic Response:
  • The day after Congress declared war, George M. Cohan wrote "Over There," a patriotic song that became popular.
  • The song expressed confidence in American troops.
• Need for Preparation: The U.S. needed to quickly prepare for war because the Allies needed food and arms, Britain and France were on the verge of collapse, and Russian soldiers were deserting.

The Military Expands

• Selective Service Act:
  • Passed on May 18, 1917, requiring men ages 21 to 30 to register for the military draft.
  • A draft is a law requiring people of a certain age to serve in the military.
• Growth of Armed Forces:
  • In 18 months, 4 million men and women joined the armed forces.
  • People from every ethnic group enlisted.
  • Around 20,000 Puerto Ricans and many Filipinos served.
  • Many immigrants enlisted.
  • Large numbers of American Indians enlisted, even though many were not citizens.
• African Americans:
  • More than 2 million registered for the draft.
  • Initially, African Americans were not allowed in combat.
  • Nearly 400,000 were eventually accepted for duty and formed into segregated "Black only" units commanded mostly by white officers.
  • African Americans supported the war effort.

Organizing a Massive War Effort

• Economic Reorganization: The U.S. reorganized its economy to produce food, arms, and other goods needed to fight the war.
• Government Agencies: President Wilson set up government agencies to oversee the war effort.
• Bureaucracy: A large bureaucracy emerged to manage the war effort, which is a system of managing government through departments run by appointed officials.

Food Production

• Food Administration:
  • Wilson chose Herbert Hoover to head the Food Administration.
  • Hoover's goal was to increase food production to feed American troops and send food to the Allies.
• Voluntary Cooperation: Hoover encouraged voluntary cooperation through publicity campaigns.
  • Slogan: "Food Will Win the War."
  • Citizens planted "victory gardens."
  • People participated in "wheatless Mondays" and "meatless Tuesdays."
• Farm Production: U.S. farm production increased due to rising food prices caused by decreased worldwide food supplies.

Industry

• Shortage of Military Supplies: The U.S. lacked military supplies when the war started.
  • The U.S. Army had limited rifles, machine guns, and artillery.
  • The military competed with private industry for scarce materials, creating disorder.
• War Industries Board:
  • President Wilson established the War Industries Board to address the crisis.
  • The board directed factories on what to produce, shared limited resources, and set prices.
• War Labor Board:
  • Created in 1918 to settle disputes over working hours and wages and prevent strikes.
  • With labor in short supply, unions gained better pay and working conditions.
  • Railroad workers, for example, gained a large wage increase and an eight-hour workday.
  • Union membership increased, and labor unrest declined due to the President's support of workers.

Financing the War

• War Revenue Act: Sharply raised taxes on personal and corporate income.
• Liberty Bonds:
  • Movie stars, such as Charlie Chaplin and Mary Pickford, helped sell Liberty Bonds.
  • American citizens lent money to the government by buying bonds to pay for the war.
  • The sale of Liberty Bonds raised 21 billion, just over half of what the United States spent on the war.
• Four-Minute Men: The government sent out 75,000 men known as "Four-Minute Men" to give short speeches promoting the war effort.
  • The name referenced the minutemen of 1776.
  • The speakers urged Americans to sacrifice for freedom and democracy.

Changes at Home

• The war brought various changes to Americans’ lives.

Women Join the Workforce

• Role Expansion: As men joined the armed forces, women stepped into men’s jobs.
• Better Pay: Women received better pay in war industries than in peacetime but still earned less than the men they replaced.
• Types of Jobs: Women assembled military goods, drove trolley cars, delivered mail, and served as police officers, railroad engineers, or electric-lift truck drivers.
• Changing Views: Women's success in traditionally male jobs helped change the perception that they were fit only for “women’s work.”
• Post-War Situation: Most gains made by women disappeared when the men returned to the workforce after the war, and thousands of women lost their jobs.

Anti-German Prejudice

• Suspicion and Intolerance: German Americans faced suspicion and intolerance during the war.
• Actions:
  • Newspapers questioned their loyalty.
  • Mobs attacked them on the streets.
  • In 1918, a mob lynched Robert Prager for being born in Germany.
  • The mob leaders were not convicted by a jury.
• Name Changes: Some families changed their names to avoid prejudice.
• Cultural Changes: Schools stopped teaching German, and terms like “liberty measles” replaced “German measles” and “liberty cabbage” replaced “sauerkraut.”

Urban Migration

• Migration Patterns: The war spurred migration within the nation.
  • Immigration from abroad stopped.
  • The draft reduced the number of workers in cities and factories.
• African American Migration:
  • Almost a half million African Americans migrated from the South to northern cities during the war.
  • They found better-paying jobs in war industries.
  • Migration continued after the war.
• Prejudice and Violence: Competition for housing and jobs led to prejudice and violence.
  • Thirty-nine African Americans were killed during a 1917 riot in East St. Louis, Illinois.
  • A New York parade protested the deaths, with marchers demanding, “Mr. President, Why Not Make AMERICA Safe for Democracy?”

International Migration

• Mexican Migration:
  • Ranchers in the Southwest urged the government to allow more Mexicans to cross the border.
  • Almost 100,000 Mexicans entered the U.S. to work on farms.
  • By 1920, Mexicans were the leading foreign-born group in California.
• Job Sectors: Mexicans worked in cotton and beet fields, copper mines, and steel mills, all important to the war effort.
• Post-War Situation: After the war, the U.S. tried to force Mexican workers to return to Mexico due to returning veterans and rising unemployment.

Silencing Opposition

• Opposition to the War:
  • Some Americans, including Progressives like Jane Addams, opposed the war.
  • Many critics were pacifists who believed that all war is wrong.
  • Socialists and radical labor groups also opposed the war, arguing it benefited factory owners but not workers.
• Government Actions:
  • Congress passed laws making it a crime to criticize the government or interfere with the war effort.
  • Nearly 1,600 people were arrested for breaking these laws.
  • Eugene V. Debs, the Socialist Party candidate for President, was jailed for protesting the draft.
  • "Big Bill" Haywood, head of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a radical union, was also jailed.
  • Government authorities ransacked the IWW’s offices.
• Constitutional Concerns: Some people questioned the laws, arguing they violated freedom of speech.
• Public Opinion: Most Americans felt the laws were necessary in wartime to encourage unity.