PSY 150 C2

2.1 Why is Research Important?

• Goal of Scientists: To better understand the world.

• Psychologists' Focus: Understanding behavior and related cognitive and physiological processes.

• Empirical Evidence: Evidence that can be observed repeatedly, irrespective of the observer's identity.

Reasoning Types

• Deductive Reasoning: General principles tested with real-world observations.

• Inductive Reasoning: Real-world observations leading to new ideas and broad generalizations.

Research Concepts

• Theory: A well-developed set of ideas explaining observed phenomena.

• Hypothesis: A tentative, testable prediction about the relationship between variables, often structured as "if-then" statements.

2.2 Approaches to Research

Clinical or Case Studies

• Focus on one person or a few individuals through observational research.

• Generalizing: Applying findings of research to larger populations.

• Example: Genie, studied for the effects of severe social isolation on development.

Observation Methods

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting.

• Observer Bias: Expectations influencing observation accuracy.

• Inter-rater Reliability: Consistency of observations by different observers.

Surveys

• Can be administered via paper, electronically, or verbally.

• Useful for gathering large amounts of data from a population sample.

Populations and Samples

• Population: Overall group researchers wish to study.

• Sample: Subset selected from a larger population.

Archival Research

• Involves analyzing past records to identify patterns or relationships.

Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

• Cross-Sectional: Compares different population segments at one time.

• Longitudinal: Studies the same group over time.

• Attrition: Reduction in study participants over time.

2.3 Analyzing Findings

Correlational Research

• Correlation: Relationship between two or more variables.

• Correlation Coefficient: Scale from -1 to +1 indicating the strength and direction of the relationship.

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.

Cause-and-Effect Relationship

• Changes in one variable cause changes in another.

• Confounding Variable: Outside factor that influences both variables.

• Example: Ice cream sales and crime rates influenced by temperature.

Illusory Correlations

• False perception of relationships between two variables.

• Can contribute to prejudicial attitudes.

• Confirmation Bias: Tendency to ignore contradicting evidence.

Experimental Research

• Experimental Group: Experiences the manipulated variable.

• Control Group: Does not experience manipulated variables.

• Operational Definition: Describes how variables will be measured or manipulated.

Avoiding Bias

• Experimenter Bias: Researcher expectations skew results.

• Participant Bias: Participants' expectations affect results.

• Single-Blind Study: Only researchers know group assignments.

• Double-Blind Study: Both researchers and participants are unaware of group assignments.

• Placebo Effect: Change in condition due to expectations.

Selecting Participants

• Participants: Individuals in research.

• Random Sample: Each member of a population has an equal chance of selection.

• Random Assignment: Equal chance for all participants to belong to experimental or control groups.

Interpreting Experimental Findings

• Statistical Analysis: Determines if differences between groups are likely due to chance.

Reporting Findings

• Research is typically reported in peer-reviewed journals.

• Replication: Verifies reliability of findings through repeated studies.

Reliability and Validity

• Reliability: Consistency of results across multiple attempts.

• Validity: Accuracy in measuring intended variables.

Ethics in Research

Human Participants

• Institutional Review Board (IRB): Reviews research proposals involving humans.

• Informed Consent: Participants must be informed about the research and its implications.

Deception and Debriefing

• Deception: Participants may be misled about certain aspects of the study.

• Debriefing: Participants receive truthful information at study's end.

Research Involving Animals

• Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC): Reviews proposals involving non-human subjects.

• Majority of animal research involves rodents or birds.