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• Plantation: Large-scale commercial farming in tropical regions, specializing in cash crops like coffee, sugar, and bananas. Often owned by corporations and rely on cheap labor.

• Shifting cultivation: A form of subsistence agriculture in which people move from one field to another, clearing land through slash-and-burn methods. Found in tropical rainforests.

• MDCs vs. LDCs:

• MDCs (More Developed Countries): Use advanced technology, mechanization, and agribusiness. Focus on commercial agriculture and high productivity.

• LDCs (Less Developed Countries): Rely on labor-intensive subsistence farming with minimal technology. Farming is often for local consumption rather than export.

• Relationship to climate:

• Different types of agriculture are adapted to different climates (e.g., rice farming in wet regions, pastoralism in arid regions).

• Climate determines crop viability, growing seasons, and farming methods.

• Hunter/Gatherers - Causes for movement:

• Early humans moved frequently in search of food and water.

• Seasonal migration patterns depended on animal movements and plant availability.

• Still practiced in some indigenous communities today.

Transhumance

• The seasonal movement of livestock between highland and lowland pastures.

• Practiced in mountainous regions (e.g., Alps, Himalayas).

• Distinct from nomadism, as it follows a regular seasonal pattern.

Causes of Declining Numbers of Farmers in MDCs

• Urbanization and industrialization have led people away from farming.

• Mechanization and technology reduce the need for labor.

• Agribusiness consolidation forces small farms out of business.

• Higher wages in non-agricultural sectors make farming less attractive.

Agribusiness

• Characteristics: Large-scale commercial farming, often controlled by corporations.

• Reasons for: Increased efficiency, profitability, and ability to meet global food demand.

• Issues: Small farmers struggle to compete; environmental concerns like soil depletion and pollution.

Von Thünen’s Model

• A theoretical model explaining land use based on transportation costs and perishability.

• Closer land is used for perishable, high-value crops (dairy, vegetables).

• Farther land is used for less perishable crops (grains, livestock).

Bid-Rent Theory

• Explains how land value changes based on distance from urban centers.

• Land closer to cities is more expensive due to higher demand.

• Determines what types of agriculture or land use occur in certain areas.

Sustainable Agriculture

• Farming that minimizes environmental damage and ensures long-term productivity.

• Eat-Local Movement: Encourages consuming locally grown food to reduce carbon footprints.

• Causes: Health concerns, environmental sustainability, supporting local economies.

• Challenges: Higher costs, limited availability, shorter shelf life of local foods.

Agricultural Revolutions

• Neolithic Revolution: Transition from hunting and gathering to farming (~10,000 years ago).

• Second Agricultural Revolution: Occurred during the Industrial Revolution, with new technologies like crop rotation, mechanization, and selective breeding.

• Green Revolution: 20th-century agricultural advancements, including high-yield crops, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides.

• Characteristics: Increased food production, reduced famines, widespread use of GMOs.

• Challenges: Environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, high costs for farmers.

• Successes: Prevented food shortages, increased global agricultural output.

• Green Revolution and Neo-Malthusians:

• Green Revolution countered Malthus’ theory that food production couldn’t keep up with population growth.

• Neo-Malthusians argue that overpopulation still threatens sustainability despite technological advances.

Women’s Role in Agriculture

• Women make up a significant portion of the agricultural workforce, especially in LDCs.

• Often responsible for subsistence farming while men engage in commercial agriculture.

• Face inequalities in land ownership, access to resources, and education.

Changes in Climate and Its Impact on Agriculture

• Rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns affect crop yields.

• Increased frequency of droughts, floods, and extreme weather disrupts farming.

• Leads to shifts in agricultural zones and changes in food production.

Extensive vs. Intensive Agriculture

• Extensive Agriculture: Large areas of land with low labor input per unit (e.g., ranching, shifting cultivation).

• Intensive Agriculture: Small land areas with high labor and input (e.g., market gardening, rice farming).

Subsistence vs. Commercial Agriculture

• Subsistence Agriculture: Farming for personal or local consumption, typically labor-intensive.

• Commercial Agriculture: Farming for profit, often involving mechanization and large-scale production.

Rural Survey Models

• Types & Characteristics: Different land division systems based on history, culture, and geography.

• Isolated vs. Clustered Settlement Patterns:

• Isolated Settlements: Individual farms spread out, common in the U.S. and Australia.

• Clustered Settlements: Homes and farms grouped together, common in Europe and parts of Asia.

Commodity Chains

• The global process of producing, processing, and distributing agricultural products.

• Includes farming, processing, transportation, retail, and consumption.

• Issues include fair trade, environmental impact, and labor rights.

Environmental Consequences of Agricultural Practices

• Deforestation: Clearing land for crops or livestock leads to habitat loss and climate change.

• Soil Degradation: Overuse of chemical fertilizers and monocropping deplete soil nutrients.

• Water Issues: Excessive irrigation causes water shortages and salinization.

• Pollution: Pesticides and fertilizers contaminate water and ecosystems.

• Biodiversity Loss: Industrial farming reduces genetic diversity in crops and animals.