Deviance, Crime, and Social Control

Definition of Deviance:
- Deviance refers to behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society.
- It involves the violation of group norms, which may or may not be formalized into law.
- The concept is comprehensive, including not only criminal behavior but also actions that are not subject to prosecution.
- Importantly, deviation from norms is not always seen as negative or criminal.
- Deviance is subject to social definitions within particular societies and time periods.

Definition of Stigma:
- Stigma refers to the labels society uses to devalue members of certain social groups.
Impact of Stigmatization:
- Individuals with mental illnesses, those who look different from their peers, and those who have previously engaged in unacceptable behaviors often experience stigma.
- Certain types of deviance can lead to stigmatization, while others may not.

Technological Innovations:
- Technological advancements can redefine social interactions and the standards of behavior associated with them.
- Examples of deviant technology use include:
- Uncivil behavior online has become commonplace.
- Advertising often inundates community forums.
- Calls have emerged to formulate rules governing various online behaviors.
Criminal Uses of Technology:
- Certain deviant technology uses are categorized as criminal behavior, e.g., the illegal sharing of software, movies, and music.

Definition of Social Control:
- Social control encompasses the techniques and strategies employed to prevent deviant behavior in any society.
- Social control is exercised at all levels of society, including:
- Family: Individuals are socialized to obey parental authority.
- Peer Groups: Introduction to informal norms occurs.
- Colleges: Institutions establish standards for student behavior.
- Bureaucratic Organizations: A formal system of rules and regulations is established.
- Government: Legislation and enforcement of social norms take place at this level.
Sanctions:
- Sanctions are penalties or rewards related to conduct concerning a social norm.
- Individuals often receive competing messages about expected behavior.

Functionalist Perspective:
- According to functionalists, deviance is a natural and common aspect of human life.
- It plays a role in defining proper behavior limits within society.
- Émile Durkheim’s View:
- Punishments within a culture help delineate acceptable behavior and contribute to social stability.
- Concept of Anomie:
- Anomie refers to a state of normlessness occurring during significant social change and disorder.
Robert Merton’s Anomie Theory of Deviance:
- Merton adapts Durkheim's concept to explain acceptance or rejection of social goals and means.
- Five Types of Behavior or Basic Forms of Adaptation:
1. Conformity:
  - Accepts both societal goals and acceptable means.
2. Retreatism:
  - Withdraws from both societal goals and means.
3. Innovation:
  - Accepts societal goals but uses improper means to achieve them.
4. Ritualism:
  - Abandons goals but is compulsively committed to institutional means.
5. Rebellion:
  - Feels alienated from both societal goals and dominant means of achievement.

Perspective Overview:
- The conflict perspective posits that individuals with power protect their interests by defining deviance to suit their needs.
- Lawmaking serves to coerce others into the morality of the powerful.
- The criminal law reflects competing values and interests within society.
Differential Justice:
- This term describes how the criminal justice system treats different social groups unequally based on race, ethnicity, or social class.
- Agents of social control may impose self-serving definitions of deviance on the general populace.

Feminist Criminology:
- Feminist criminologists, such as Freda Adler and Meda Chesney-Lind, argue that existing approaches to deviance and crime were developed primarily with male perspectives in mind.
- Historically, the law defined rape narrowly, excluding married individuals, until feminist protests led to necessary changes.
- Growth in feminist scholarship in deviance and crime is anticipated.

Definition of Hate Crime:
- A hate crime occurs when an offender is motivated by the victim's race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation, indicating that hatred prompted the offense.
- Such crimes are also known as bias crimes.
- Most hate crimes are committed by members of the dominant group against the relatively powerless.

Recent Crime Reductions:
- Possible explanations for declining crime rates include:
- Community-oriented policing and crime prevention initiatives.
- Significant increases in prison populations which may reduce outside crime opportunities.
- New advancements in surveillance technology.
- Improved security for residential and business areas.
- A decrease in the crack cocaine epidemic, which peaked in the late 1980s.
- Changes in the age demographics, with more people in their 50s and fewer in their 20s.
Countertrend Noted by Feminists:
- A notable countertrend is the increasing proportion of major crimes committed by women, although the violent crime rates among females have declined.