Urban issues and challenges and changing economic world

3.2.1 Section A: Urban issues and challenges

Brownfield site

Land that has been used, abandoned and now awaits some new use. Commonly found across

urban areas, particularly in the inner city.

Dereliction

Abandoned buildings and wasteland.

Economic opportunities

Chances for people to improve their standard of living through employment.

Greenfield site

A plot of land, often in a rural or on the edge of an urban area that has not yet been subject to

any building development.

Inequalities

Differences between poverty and wealth, as well as in peoples' wellbeing and access to things

like jobs, housing and education. Inequalities may occur in housing provision, access to

services, access to open land, safety and security.

Integrated transport systems

When different transport methods connect together, making journeys smoother and

therefore public transport more appealing. Better integration should result in more demand

for public transport and should see people switching from private car use to public modes of

transport, which should be more sustainable. It may also lead to a fall in congestion due to

less road users.

Mega-cities

An urban area with a total population in excess of ten million people.

Migration

When people move from one area to another with the intention of settling there.

Natural increase

The birth rate minus the death rate of a population.

Pollution

The presence of chemicals, noise, dirt or other substances which have harmful or poisonous

effects on an environment.

Rural-urban fringe

A zone of transition between the built-up area and the countryside, where there is often

competition for land use. It is a zone of mixed land uses, from out of town shopping centres

and golf courses to farmland and motorways.

Sanitation

Measures designed to protect public health, including the provision of clean water and the

disposal of sewage and waste.

Social deprivation

The degree to which an individual or an area is not able to access services, decent housing,

adequate income and local employment.

Social opportunities

Chances for people to improve their quality of life, for instance access to education and health

care.

Squatter settlement

An area of poor-quality housing, at times lacking in amenities such as water supply, sewerage

and electricity, which often develops spontaneously on land not owned by the occupants.

Sustainable urban living

A sustainable city is one in which there is minimal damage to the environment, the economic

base is sound with resources allocated fairly and jobs secure, and there is a strong sense of

community, with local people involved in decisions made. Sustainable urban living includes

several aims including the use of renewable resources, energy efficiency, use of public

transport, accessible resources and services.

Traffic congestion

Occurs when there is too great a volume of traffic for roads to cope with, so traffic jams form

and traffic slows to a crawl.

Urban greening

The process of increasing and preserving open space such as public parks and gardens in

urban areas.

Urbanisation

The process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in

towns and cities. Rapid urbanisation occurs in many LICs and NEEs.

Urban regeneration

The revival of old parts of the built up area by either installing modern facilities in old

buildings (known as renewal) or opting for redevelopment (ie demolishing existing buildings

and starting afresh).

Urban sprawl

The unplanned growth of urban areas into the surrounding rural areas.

Waste recycling

The process of extracting and reusing useful substances found in waste.

3.2.2 Section B: The changing economic world

Birth rate

The number of births in a year per 1000 of the total population.

Commonwealth

The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 56 independent and equal sovereign states,

which were mostly territories of the former British Empire. It is home to 2.5 billion citizens.

Member states have no legal obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language,

history, culture, and their shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law.

Death rate

The number of deaths in a year per 1000 of the total population.

De-industrialisation

The decline of a country's traditional manufacturing industry due to exhaustion of raw

materials, loss of markets and increasing competition from NEEs.

Demographic Transition Model

A model showing how populations change over time in terms of their birth rates, death rates

and total population size.

Development

The progress of a country in terms of economic growth, the use of technology and human

welfare.

Development gap

The widening difference in standards of living and wellbeing between the world’s economically

richest and poorest countries (between HICs and LICs).

European Union

An international organisation of 27 European countries, formed to reduce trade barriers and

increase cooperation among its members. Seventeen of these countries also share the same

type of money: the euro. A person who is a citizen of a European Union country can live and

work in any of the other 26 member countries without needing a work permit or visa. The UK

formally left the EU in 2020.

Fairtrade

Is a system that ensures producers in LICs and NEEs are given a fairer price for the goods they

produce. Often this is from farm products like cocoa, coffee or cotton. The increased price

improves income, workers’ rights and working conditions, and reduces exploitation.

Globalisation

The process which has created a more connected world, with increases in the movements of

goods (trade) and people (migration and tourism) worldwide.

Gross National Income (GNI)

A measurement of economic activity that is calculated by dividing the gross (total) national

income by the size of the population. GNI takes into account not just the value of goods and

services, but also the income earned from investments overseas.

Human Development Index (HDI)

A method of measuring development which combines GDP per capita, life expectancy and

adult literacy to give an overview. This combined measure of development uses economic and

social indicators to produce an index figure that allows comparison between countries.

Industrial structure

The relative proportion of the workforce employed in different sectors of the economy

(primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary).

Infant mortality

The average number of deaths of children under 1 year of age, per 1000 live births, per year.

Information technologies

Computer, internet, mobile phone and satellite technologies – especially those that speed up

communication and the flow of information.

Intermediate technology

Technology that is suited to the needs, skills, resources, knowledge and wealth of local people

in the environment in which they live. In LICs it is often simple, easily learned and easily

maintained technology.

International aid

Money, goods and services given by the government of one country or a multilateral

institution such as the World Bank or International Monetary Fund to help the quality of life

and economy of another country.

Life expectancy

The average number of years a person might be expected to live.

Literacy rate

The percentage of people who have basic reading and writing skills.

Microfinance loans

Very small loans which are given to people in the LICs to help them start a small business.

North-south divide (UK)

Economic and cultural differences between Southern England (the South-East, Greater

London, the South-West and parts of the East) and Northern England (the North-East, West

and Yorkshire and the Humber). There are clear differences in health conditions, house

prices, earnings, and political influence.

Post-industrial economy

The economy of many economically developed countries where most employment is now in

service (tertiary) industries.

Science and business parks

Business Parks are purpose built areas of offices and warehouses, often at the edge of a city

and on a main road. Science parks are often located near university sites, and high-tech

industries are established. Scientific research and commercial development may be carried

out in co-operation with the university.

Service industries (tertiary industries)

The economic activities that provide various services - commercial (shops and banks),

professional (solicitors and dentists), social (schools and hospitals), entertainment

(restaurants and cinemas) and personal (hairdressers and fitness trainers).

Trade

The buying and selling of goods and services between countries.

Transnational Corporation (TNC)

A company that has operations (factories, offices, research and development, shops) in more

than one country. Many TNCs are large and have well-known brands.