Dimensions of Culture
Dimensions of Culture
Overview
This section covers important cultural research and the GLOBE Study, focusing on dimensions of culture.
Leaders and Culture
Influence of Culture: Our culture significantly influences our perspectives on leadership.
Developing Awareness: Leaders need to develop awareness and anticipate cultural similarities and differences.
This helps them acquire the Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSA) and behaviors necessary for effective interaction with people from diverse backgrounds.
Such interactions foster mutual appreciation.
Knowledge is Power: Understanding one's own cultural sensitivity serves as a crucial reference point for assessing awareness.
Cultural Competence: Developing cultural competence is both a professional obligation and an opportunity for leaders to adjust and respond to unfamiliar situations.
Multicultural KSA Enhancement: With millions of employees working in diverse global environments, there are ample opportunities to enhance multicultural KSA.
Important Research on Culture
Profound Effect: Differences in culture can profoundly affect leadership effectiveness.
Leader Effectiveness: For leaders to be effective, they must comprehend the complexities of culture and the basic dimensions identified by researchers.
Dimensions of Culture:
These distinguish one culture from another.
They illustrate how dominant cultural preferences vary across national societies.
They provide insights into the consequences of bringing together groups of people with differing preferences.
Kluckhohn & Stodtbeck (1961)
Basic Human Nature: Cultures hold different views on whether individuals are fundamentally good, evil, or a mixture.
Good: Individuals are inherently good and will act reasonably and responsibly if given autonomy.
Evil: Individuals are essentially evil and cannot be trusted.
Mixed: Individuals possess a combination of good and evil traits.
Relationship to Others: How societies structure human relationships.
Individualistic: The primary responsibility of an individual is to themselves; individual abilities and characteristics are paramount.
Group (Collectivist): Responsibility to family and the broader group is most important.
Hierarchical: Similar to a group orientation, but with the added expectation and respect for distinct status differences.
Activity Orientation: How cultures approach life and purpose.
Being: The purpose of life is to simply exist, experience, and achieve an understanding of life.
Doing: The purpose of life is to actively engage, be involved, and accomplish goals.
Relationship to Nature: How cultures perceive their connection to the natural world.
Subjugation: Humanity is determined by nature, which dictates activities.
Harmony: Humanity lives in connection with nature, seeking balance.
Domination: Humanity seeks to control and master the environment.
Time Orientation: How cultures orient themselves relative to time.
Past: Emphasizes lessons from history.
Present: Focuses on the current situation.
Future: Considers the future and how current actions impact it.
Hofstede (1984, 1985, 2001)
Power Distance: Refers to the degree to which individuals accept inequality in power, including within an organization.
Explores whether authority is accepted solely due to a leader's position.
Low Power Distance: Individuals expect equality in power and do not accept a leader's authority merely based on their position.
Uncertainty Avoidance: The degree to which members of a culture feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
High Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures:
Prefer formal rules and policies to reduce unpredictability.
Are less tolerant of unconventional behavior or ideas.
Often prioritize security and stability.
May resist change and innovation unless clearly justified.
Low Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures:
Are more flexible and open to change.
Accept risk and ambiguity as inherent parts of life.
Encourage entrepreneurship and innovation.
Tend to have fewer rules and more informal norms.
Individualism vs. Collectivism: Refers to social frameworks where individuals prioritize self-interest or group needs.
Individualistic Societies: Individuals are expected to be self-reliant.
Collectivistic Societies: Individuals are expected to look out for one another, and organizations protect their employees' interests.
Masculinity and Femininity: Refers to the emphasis a culture places on emotional and social roles and work goals.
Explores preferences for dominant male roles (assertiveness, achievement) or relationship-building female roles (cooperation, quality of life).
Masculine Culture: Reflects a preference for assertiveness, achievement, and material success.
Feminine Culture: Values relationships, cooperation, and quality of life.
Important Caveat: Despite the names, both men and women in a given culture tend to subscribe to the dominant value (masculine or feminine).
Hofstede's 6th Dimension (2010)
Indulgence and Restraint: Refers to the extent to which people try to control their impulses.
High Indulgence Cultures: Individuals are free to enjoy life, seek instant gratification, and adhere to loose social norms.
Self-Reflection: Leaders should consider where they fall on these items and how they would define their own culture based on these assumptions (e.g., power tolerant/intolerant, comfortable with uncertainty, group needs-based, male/female role preferred).
Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner (1998)
Universalism vs. Particularism:
Universalist Culture: Rules are more important than relationships; legal contracts are trustworthy and must be honored.
Particularist Culture: The application of rules depends on the specific situation and involved relationships.
Neutral vs. Affective (Emotional):
Neutral Culture: Individuals hide their thoughts and feelings, maintaining self-control.
Affective Culture: Individuals express thoughts openly, using gestures, dramatic expressions, and often physical touch; discussions are passionate.
Specific vs. Diffuse:
Specific Culture: Individuals are direct, clear, blunt, and focus on facts.
Diffuse Culture: Individuals are more indirect and tactful; the context of the situation matters, and they tolerate ambiguity.
The GLOBE Research Study
Comprehensive Research: This is the most comprehensive research on national dimensions of culture to date.
Cultural Clusters: The study uses clusters to categorize countries and cultures, providing an overview for potential interactions.
Leader Application: Leaders can utilize these clusters to identify broad similarities and differences in values and attitudes between listed countries.
Limitations:
The GLOBE study, like any research, has limitations.
The complexities and diversity of language, nationalities, and cultures in continents such as Africa and Asia were not fully considered.
GLOBE Study: 9 Cultural Dimensions
Identified 9 cultural dimensions that distinguish societies, with the first four overlapping with Hofstede's work:
Uncertainty Avoidance
Power Distance
Collectivism vs. Individualism
In-group Collectivism: The degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families.
Assertiveness: How much a society encourages toughness, confrontation, and aggression.
Future Orientation: The level of importance placed on planning for the future.
Performance Orientation: How much a society encourages and rewards performance improvement and excellence.
Humane Orientation: How much a society rewards people for being kind, caring, altruistic, and generous.
Gender Differentiation: The level of gender role differences emphasized in a society.
Culture and Context
Crucial Role of Context: The context of a situation is crucial to communication; it influences not only what is said or how it is said, but more importantly, how it is perceived.
High Context Cultures:
Rely heavily on context in interactions.
Meaning is often embedded in nonverbal cues, shared understanding, and relationships rather than explicit words.
Examples: Asia, Africa.
Low Context Cultures:
Focus on the specifics of what is said or written.
Trust is typically gained through legal agreements and clear, explicit communication.
Examples: American, Scandinavian, Western Europe.
Implication for Leaders: Leader behaviors that yield beneficial results in one culture may not lead to positive outcomes in another (e.g., continuously asking for input in a high power distance culture might be counterproductive).
Developing Intercultural Sensitivity
Six Orientations: These explain people's reactions to cultural differences:
Ethnocentric Orientations (Relating to one's own culture):
Denial of Differences: One's own culture is perceived as the only