Mid

1.1 Attribution errors and & person perception 

Attribution - how individuals perceive their everyday lives.

Dispositional Attribution - occurs when a person's behavior is explained as coming from factors internal to the individuals  

Situational Attribution - when a person's action is explained as coming from factors external to themselves 

Explanatory Style - How people explain the events that happened to the (optimistic and pessimistic) 

Optimistic - Emphasizes external, temporary, and specific causes.

Pessimistic - Emphasizes internal, stable, and global causes.

 Actor/Observer Bias - A bias that occurs when people attribute their actions to external factors while attributing other people’s behavior to internal factors

Fundamental Attribution Error - The tendency to attribute another’s actions to their character and personality.

Self-Serving Bias - A bias where individuals attribute their successes to internal factors like talent while blaming external factors for their failures.

Internal Locus of Control - The belief that individuals have significant influence over the events of their lives

External Locus of Control - The belief that refers to external factors have control and influence over their lives (luck, fate, and other powerful forces)

Mere Exposure Effect - The psychological phenomenon where people develop a preference for them because they are familiar with them.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy - Where someone’s expectations about a particular situation causes that situation to come true.

Social Comparison - A behavior where individuals compare themselves to others to evaluate themselves.

1.2 Attitude formation and attitude change

Stereotype - a widely held btu oversimplified and generalized belief about a particular group of people

 Just-World Phenomenon - a concept in which individuals tend to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias - The tendency for individuals to perceive members of outgroups as more similar to each other than they truly are.

In-Group Bias - the tendency of people to favor their own group above that of others

Ethnocentrism - The tendency for an individual to view one’s own cultural or ethnic group as superior.

Cognitive Dissonance - The mental discomfort experienced when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs.

1.3 Psychology of social situations

Social Norms - implicit rules that define what is expected and acceptable in society 

Social Influence Theory - The concept that explains how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by the presence and actions of others

Persuasion - The influence that people have on one another changing their beliefs, decisions, and actions. 

Central Route Persuasion - Involves careful and thoughtful consideration in arguments, uses logic, relevance, and validity.

Peripheral Route Pers

uasion - Relies on superficial cues making judgments on surface level information such as visual attractiveness. 

Foot-in-the-Door - A compliance technique that aims to get a person to agree to a large request by having them agree to a small one first.

Door-in-the-Face - A complice technique that involves making an unusually large request first then following it up with a request. 

Conformity - the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms 

Obedience - Compliance with an order, request, or submission to another’s authority 

Individualism - is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth and autonomy of the individual.

Collectivism - A cultural value emphasizing group goals, harmony, and interdependence over individual achievements. Common in cultures where community and family are prioritized.

Multiculturalism - The coexistence of diverse cultures in a society, encouraging the recognition, respect, and preservation of cultural differences.

Group Polarization - The tendency for group discussions to amplify the initial leanings of its members, leading to more extreme opinions or decisions.

Groupthink -  A phenomenon where the desire for group cohesion leads to poor decision-making, as dissenting opinions are suppressed to maintain harmony.

Diffusion of Responsibility - The diminished sense of personal accountability in group settings, where individuals assume someone else will take responsibility.

Social Loafing - The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Deindividuation - The loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group settings, often leading to impulsive or deviant behavior.

Social Facilitation - The improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

False Consensus Effect - The tendency to overestimate how much others share one’s beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Superordinate Goals - Shared objectives that require collaboration between groups or individuals, often reducing conflict and fostering cooperation.

Social Trap - A situation where individuals or groups pursue short-term self-interest, leading to long-term collective harm.

Altruism - Unselfish concern for the well-being of others, often resulting in selfless acts or sacrifices.

Social Reciprocity Norm - The expectation to return a favor or respond kindly when someone does something for you.

Bystander Effect - The likelihood of individuals not helping someone in need when other bystanders are present, as responsibility is diffused.

Operational Definition: A clear, precise definition of a variable or concept, specifying how it is measured or manipulated in a study.

Placebo: A substance or treatment with no therapeutic effect, used as a control in experiments to test the effectiveness of another treatment.

Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Experimental Group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested.

Ethical Guidelines: Principles that ensure research is conducted responsibly, protecting participants' rights and well-being.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Qualitative Research: Research focusing on descriptive, non-numerical data to understand phenomena.

Quantitative Research: Research involving numerical data to measure and analyze variables.

Mean: The average of a set of numbers.

Median: The middle value in a sorted set of numbers.

Mode: The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset.

Central Tendency: Measures (mean, median, mode) that represent the center of a dataset.

Variation: The degree of spread or dispersion in a dataset.

Percentile Rank: The percentage of scores in a distribution that a particular score exceeds.

Regression Towards the Mean: The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the average on subsequent measurements.

Correlational Coefficient: A numerical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables (ranges from -1 to +1).

Falsifiable: A quality of a hypothesis that allows it to be disproven through evidence.

Replication: Repeating a study to confirm its results.

Confounding Variables: Extraneous variables that can interfere with the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Normal Curve: A bell-shaped distribution where most values cluster around the mean.

Skewness: Asymmetry in a distribution, indicating a tail on one side.

Bimodal Distribution: A distribution with two distinct peaks or modes.

Effect Size: A measure of the strength of the relationship between variables or the magnitude of an effect.

Statistical Significance: The likelihood that a result is not due to chance (often set at p < .05).

Convenience Sample: A sample chosen based on accessibility and ease of recruitment.

Random Sample: A sample where every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance to reduce bias.

Sample Bias: A sampling error that results in an unrepresentative sample.

Generalization: Applying findings from a sample to the larger population.

Single-Blind Procedure: An experimental setup where participants are unaware of their group assignment.

Double-Blind Procedure: An experiment where both researchers and participants are unaware of group assignments.

Variables: Elements or factors that can change or vary in an experiment.

Experimenter Bias: Researchers’ expectations influencing the outcome of a study.

Social Desirability Bias: Participants altering responses to appear more favorable.

Representation: Ensuring a sample accurately reflects the population being studied.

Peer Review: The process of having research evaluated by experts in the field before publication.

Directionality Problem: Difficulty in determining which variable influences the other in a correlation.

Third Variable Problem: When an unmeasured variable explains the relationship between two others.

Correlation: A measure of the relationship between two variables.

Causation: The demonstration that one variable directly influences another.

Self-Report Bias: Inaccuracies in data due to participants misreporting their behaviors or attitudes.

Animal Research: The study of animals to understand human psychology and biology, adhering to ethical guidelines.

Informed Consent: Participants’ agreement to take part in research after being informed of all aspects of the study.

Informed Assent: Obtaining agreement from individuals unable to give legal consent (e.g., minors), along with permission from guardians.

Confidentiality: Ensuring participants’ data is kept private and secure.

Anonymity: Ensuring participants’ identities are not linked to their data.

Deception: Intentionally withholding information about the study’s true purpose, justified only if necessary and ethically reviewed.

Debrief: Informing participants about the study’s true purpose and any deception used after participation.