living cells require energy from outside sources to do work
the work of the cell includes assembling polymers, membrane transport, moving and reproducing
animals can obtain energy to do this work by feeding on other animals or photosynthetic organisms
energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and leaves as heat
the chemical elements essential to life are recycled
photosynthesis generates O2 and organic molecules (like glucose), which are used in cellular respiration
cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules to generate ATP which powers work
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in cellular respiration, glucose and other organic molecules are broken down in a series of steps
electrons from organic compounds are usually first transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme
as an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an oxidizing agent during cellular respiration
NADH, the reduced form of NAD+ represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e- = NADH + H+
NADH has the ability to make 3 ATP
NAD+ is being reduced
coenzyme FAD+ will pick up 2e- and 3H+ to form FADH
NADH passes the electrons to the electron transport chain
unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron transport chain passes electrons in a series of steps instead of one explosive reaction
^^O2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy-yielding tumble^^
the energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP
NADH returns to NAD+ after transporting electrons
glycolysis - breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules
Krebs cycle - complete breakdown of glucose
oxidative phosphorylation - most of ATP synthesis
ATP is used to add phosphorus to glucose using hexokinase → glucose 6-phosphate
phosphoglucoisomerase creates an isomer of glucose 6-phosphate → fructose 6-phosphate
ATP is used to add another phosphorus using phosphofructokinase → fructose 1,6-biphosphate
aldolase converts fructose 1,6-biphosphate into 2 potential products → glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
* Everything is doubled from now on *
the citric acid cycle or krebs cycle completes the breakdown of pyruvate to CO2
the cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate generating ^^1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH^^ for EACH pyruvate (glucose would have 2)
each acetyl-CoA is fed into the cycle separately and ^^converted into 2 CO2 (4 total)^^
ending molecule of Krebs cycle is oxaloacetate
fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD which can be reused by glycolysis
2 common types are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
alcohol fermentation - pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps
alcohol fermentation by yeast is used in brewing, winemaking, and baking
lactic acid fermentation - pyruvate is reduced by NADH forming NAD and lactate as end products with no release of CO2
lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to make cheese and yogurt
human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentations to generate ATP during strenuous exercise when O2 is scarce
in alcohol fermentation, if there is not enough yeast, it will make acetic acid (eg. balsamic vinegar)
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