Topic 2 2024

Page 1: Introduction

• Course Title: Computer Architecture and Organization.

• Materials based on William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture.

Page 2: Overview

• Brief history of computers.

• Overview of computer structure and function.

• Importance of performance and balanced utilization of resources.

• Introduction to Intel x86 and ARM processor families as key examples.

Page 3: History of Computers - The ENIAC

• Defined as the world's first general-purpose electronic digital computer.

• Developed at the University of Pennsylvania in response to WWII needs.

• Addressed difficulties in supplying accurate range and trajectory tables for artillery.

• Initially, over 200 people used desktop calculators to solve equations for ballistics.

• Proposal for ENIAC was made by John Mauchly and John Eckert in 1943.

Page 4: ENIAC Specifications

• ENIAC was massive: weighed 30 tons, took up 1500 square feet.

• Used over 18,000 vacuum tubes and consumed 140 kilowatts of power.

• Capable of 5000 additions per second but used decimal rather than binary.

• Memory system consisted of 20 accumulators for 10-digit decimal numbers.

• Major drawback: Must be programmed manually, requiring physical setups.

• Completed in 1946; first task was to perform calculations for the hydrogen bomb.

Page 5: Legacy of ENIAC

• Showcased general-purpose capabilities beyond initial military use.

• Operated until 1955 and was then disassembled.

Page 6 - 7: Visuals of ENIAC

• Programming ENIAC involved tedious operations.

• Visuals included in the presentation.

Page 8: Stored-Program Concept

• Idea of storing programs alongside data to facilitate easier access and modification.

• Concept attributed to ENIAC designers, notably John von Neumann.

• Development of the EDVAC in 1945 pushed this concept forward.

• IAS computer became the prototype for future general-purpose computers.

Page 9: IAS Computer Structure

• Main components include:

  • Main Memory: Stores both instructions and data.

  • Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Operates on binary data.

  • Control Unit: Interprets and executes instructions.

  • Input/Output Equipment: Controlled by the control unit.

Page 10: Memory Structure of IAS

• IAS had 1000 storage locations (words), each with 40 bits.

• Structure formats include a sign bit and a data portion.

• Instruction format could accommodate two instructions per word.

Page 11: Control Unit Functionality

• Fetches and executes instructions sequentially.

• Uses registers such as:

  • Memory Buffer Register (MBR): For storage transfer.

  • Memory Address Register (MAR): For specifying addresses.

  • Instruction Register (IR): For currently executing instruction.

  • Program Counter (PC): Tracks next instruction address.

Page 12: IAS Operation Cycle

• Instruction cycle consists of:

  • Fetch Cycle: Loading instruction opcode and address.

  • Execute Cycle: Interpretation and execution of instructions.

• Complexity of operations illustrated through examples.

Page 13: IAS Instructions

• IAS supported 21 instructions that were grouped as follows:

  • Data Transfer, Branching, Arithmetic, Address Modify.

• Instructions defined with specific opcode and address formats.

Page 14: Emergence of Computer Industry

• 1950s witnessed establishment of Sperry and IBM as dominant computer companies.

• UNIVAC I was the first successful commercial computer designed for multiple applications.

Page 15: Advancements with UNIVAC II

• UNIVAC II featured enhanced memory and performance.

• Innovations like backward compatibility allowed continued use of older programs.

Page 16: IBM’s Entry into the Market

• IBM introduced its first electronic stored-program computer, the 701, targeted for scientific use.

Page 17: Transition from Vacuum Tubes to Transistors

• The introduction of transistors replaced vacuum tubes, leading to smaller and more efficient computers.

• Signified the second generation of computers.

Page 18 - 19: Generational Changes

• Generations classified by hardware technology:

  • Each new generation shows improvements in size, performance, and capacity.

Page 20: Characteristics of the Second Generation

• Featured more complex arithmetic and logic units, programming languages, and a stronger software presence.

• Introduction of companies like DEC, marking the start of the minicomputer era.

Page 21: Evolution of IBM’s 7000 Series

• Transition from the 700 series to the last member of the 7000 series showcases typical performance improvements in computer tech.

Page 22: Discrete Component Era

• Early systems comprised of discrete components, manufacturing challenges arose due to complexity.

Page 23: Integration of Circuit Technology

• The integrated circuit era began, leading to transformative advancements in computing power and efficiency.

Page 24: Microelectronics Trends

• Advancements towards smaller electronics drove the development of integrated circuits.

Page 25: Digital Components in Computing

• Fundamental elements required for digital computing: storage, movement, processing, control.

Page 26: Key Concepts of Integrated Circuits

• Description of how integrated circuits are created and utilized in modern technology.

Page 27: Growth of Chip Integration

• Transition from small scale integration (SSI) to larger integrated circuits.

Page 28: Moore's Law

• Gordon Moore's observation about exponential growth in transistor count and implications on cost and performance.

Page 29: Consequences of Moore’s Law

• Key impacts include cost reduction, smaller form factors, increased operational speed, and improved reliability.

Page 30: IBM System/360

• Announced in 1964, introducing a planned family of compatible computers that revolutionized computing capabilities.

Page 31: Family of Compatible Computers

• Characteristics of this family included:

  • Similar instruction sets.

  • Compatibility across models in program execution.

Page 32: System 360 Implementation

• Implementation based on speed, size, and simultaneous operations in various models.

Page 33: Transition to PDP-8

• Introduction of the PDP-8 marked the minicomputer era.

• Its affordability and smaller size appealed to educational and research markets.

Page 34: Embedded Systems Definition

• Contrasted with general-purpose computers to highlight the pervasiveness of embedded systems in modern devices.

Page 35: Real-Time Constraints in Embedded Systems

• Real-time computing constraints dictated by environmental interactions and operational requirements.

Page 36: Diagram of Embedded System Organization

• Structural organization of embedded systems integrating various components.

Page 37: Evolution of Semiconductor Memory

• Shift from magnetic-core memory to semiconductor technologies, significantly impacting performance and cost.

Page 38: Microprocessor Development

• The development of essential microprocessors like Intel’s 4004 and their technological advancements.

Page 39: Growth of Microprocessors

• Historical progression of microprocessors from the 4004 to the introduction of more complex designs like the 80386.

Page 40: Evolution of 16-Bit to 32-Bit Processors

• Transition to 32-bit architecture with developments in processing capabilities.

Page 41: Intel Processor Evolution

• Overview of key milestones in Intel microprocessors from introduction to recent developments.

Page 42: Importance of x86 and ARM Architectures

• Emphasis on the performance evolution through historic processor families.

Page 43: Market Position of Intel

• Intel has maintained a significant market share in microprocessor manufacturing for several decades.

Page 44: Intel x86 Highlights

• Notable advancements and milestones achieved in the x86 series, including the emergence of the 8080 and 8086.

Page 45: Advances in Multitasking

• Multitasking capabilities introduced with processors like the 80386 promoting greater utilization of computing power.

Page 46: Pentium and Subsequent Generations

• Description of Pentium architecture and continued enhancements in processing speed and efficiency.

Page 47: Superscalar Techniques

• Introduction of new programming techniques to enhance performance through parallel execution.

Page 48: Definition of Embedded Systems

• Understanding embedded systems in the context of product integration versus general computing.

Page 49: Real-Time Operation Constraints

• Implications of real-time operations for embedded system design.

Page 50: Components of Embedded Systems

• Key components needed to interface with external systems and the environment.

Page 51: Efficiency in Embedded Systems

• Efficiency considerations when designing embedded systems focusing on performance metrics.

Page 52: The Internet of Things (IoT)

• IoT's significance in enhancing connectivity among devices and systems.

Page 53: Generational Deployments in IoT

• Distinct generations of technology deployment leading to the current state of IoT.

Page 54: Deeply Embedded Systems Definition

• Characteristics and constraints of deeply embedded systems.

Page 55: Resource Constraints

• Discussing challenges faced by deeply embedded systems concerning memory, power, and size.

Page 56: Overview of ARM Architecture

• Introduction to the ARM architecture, its design principles, and application in embedded systems.

Page 57: ARM Holdings Structure and Market Impact

• Explanation of ARM's business structure and solution offering in the market.

Page 58: Types of ARM Architectures

• Overview of ARM’s Cortex family of processors aimed at various application types.

Page 59: Features of Cortex Processors

• Different Cortex models designed according to specific performance and application needs.

Page 60: Cortex-M Series Overview

• Discussion of different M-series processors and their intended applications in embedded systems.

Page 61: Cloud Computing Evolution

• A brief history and development of cloud computing in enterprise and consumer spaces.

Page 62: Definition of Cloud Computing

• Explanation of cloud computing’s capabilities and advantages for consumers and enterprises.

Page 63: Cloud Networking Overview

• Network management features essential for cloud computing systems and services.

Page 64: Cloud Storage Functions

• Definition and purposes of cloud storage services in modern computing architecture.

Page 65: Types of Cloud Services

• Explanation of various cloud service models including SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS.

Page 66: SaaS Characteristics

• Examples of Software as a Service and its implications for users and organizations.

Page 67: Economic Implications of Modern Computing

• Discussion on cost efficiencies and technological advancements over time.

Page 68: Expanded Use Cases for Workstations

• Overview of sophisticated applications made possible through advancements in computing.

Page 69: Performance Drivers in Computer Architecture

• Factors that influence computer performance and architectural design.

Page 70: Enhancements in Processor Efficiency

• Overview of techniques utilized to maintain microprocessor efficiency in design.

Page 71: Critical Challenge of Performance Balance

• Discussion on the interface bottlenecks that require careful architectural design to optimize.

Page 72: Strategies for Performance Improvement

• Various methods for enhancing overall system performance using multiple strategies.

Page 73: I/O Management Considerations

• Addressing I/O demands through advanced design approaches and structures.

Page 74: Adaptations for Changing System Demands

• Ongoing adjustments required to meet the evolving demands on systems and components.

Page 75: Multiple Processors on a Single Chip

• Discussion of multicore designs and the benefits of shared cache structures.

Page 76: Future of Processor Architecture

• Predictions for enhancements in core numbers and functional diversity in future chips.

Page 77: GPGPU Applications and Benefits

• Discussing the increasing importance of GPUs in computational tasks beyond graphics.

Page 78: Importance of Continuous Evolution

• Emphasizing ongoing advances in design and technology to support future needs.

Page 79: Clock Cycle Fundamentals

• Explanation of how clock cycles work and their impact on processor performance.

Page 80: MIPS Metrics and Instruction Rates

• Importance of understanding instruction execution rates as a performance measure.

Page 81: Performance Factors and System Attributes

• Overview matrix mapping performance impacting factors to system attributes.

Page 82: MIPS Rate Calculation Example

• Example illustrating how MIPS is calculated based on instruction execution.

Page 83: Second Calculation Example for MIPS

• Another illustrative problem for calculating MIPS in a streamlined context.

Page 84: Comparing Processor MIPS Rates

• Comprehensive comparison exercise for two different processor architectures.

Page 85: Issues with Basic MIPS Comparisons

• Limitations of raw MIPS measures when comparing heterogeneous systems.

Page 86: Standardization of Performance Benchmarking

• Insight into the need for standardized benchmarks for comparison purposes.

Page 87: SPEC Benchmark Suites Overview

• Introduction to SPEC benchmarks and their applications across computing systems.

Page 88: SPEC CPU2006 as a Performance Baseline

• Detailed description of SPEC CPU2006 and its role in measuring computational efficiency.

Page 89: Importance of Benchmark Suites

• Significance of benchmark suites in providing a clear comparative measure.

Page 90: Performance Enhancements and Amdahl's Law

• Discussion on Amdahl's Law and the implications for parallel processing.

Page 91: Amdahl's Law Relevance in Modern Computing

• Theoretical implications of Amdahl’s Law on future processing designs.

Page 92: Continued Exploration of Parallel Processing

• Further analysis of the practical outcomes of applying Amdahl's Law in multiple scenarios.

Page 93: Future Trends in Computing

• Emerging trends such as quantum computing, neuromorphic computing, and exascale computing.

Page 94: Chapter Summary

• Overview of all key concepts covered in Chapter 2 regarding computer evolution, architectures, and performance assessment.

It seems like you're referring to specific Course Learning Outcomes (CLO1 and CLO2), but I would need more context or details about what those outcomes entail to provide a comprehensive response. Are you asking about particular topics or a summary of those outcomes?

It seems like you're referring to specific Course Learning Outcomes (CLO1 and CLO2), but I would need more context or details about what those outcomes entail to provide a comprehensive response. Are you asking about particular topics or a summary of those outcomes?