NOTE: Unit 6 (1877-1898)

6.2 Westward Expansion: Economic Development

Transcontinental Railroads - 2 main during Civil War: The Union Pacific (UP - war vets and Irish) and The Central Pacific (UC - Chinese)

• Positive - linked East and West to one national market, increased settlement on Great Plains

• Negative - Little profit return, damaged the environment, nearly killed all buffalo, displaced Native Americans

Great Plains - Lands between Mississippi River and Pacific Coast

• “Great American Desert”

• West of 100th meridian

• Few trees, less than 15 in rainfall/year, winter blizzards, hot and dry summers

Buffalo - Lived in Great Plains, wiped out by 1900 by homesteads and ranches, steel rails, and new towns

Mining frontier - CA Gold Rush of 1849 set pattern for subsequent gold rushes

• South Dakota, Colorado, Montana, Idaho, Nevada, Arizona

• Pike’s Peak, Colorado in 1859 → 100k miners

• Boomtowns - overnight towns infamous for saloons, dance-hall girls, and vigilante justice; later became ghost towns after gold/silver ran out

Cornstock Lode - Creator of a mining boomtown that survived and industrialized, Nevada’s Virginia City

• Theaters, churches, newspapers, schools, libraries, railroads, and police

Cattle Frontier - cast open grasslands appealing to ranchers

• Vaqueros - Mexican cowboys who raised and rounded up cattle in TX

• Cattle Drives - By Black or Mexicans, paid a dollar a day to bring cattle from Texas to Chicago; ended bc overgrazing, homesteaders who used barbed wire, and commercial breeding

Barbed wire - Used by homesteaders to cut off access to formerly open range → decline in cattle drives

Homestead Act - Offered 160 acres of free land to family who settled for 5 years

• 500k people moved west

• Many people had to purchase their land because it ended up in hands of railroad companies and land specs

• Severe weather, falling prices for crops, cost of new machinery → failure of farms

Farming Frontier

• Problems - Severe/extreme weather, grasshopper plagues, lonesome life, scarce water, wood for fencing

• Solution - barbed wire for fencing and windmills for water

• Dry farming - Need less water to farm, helped farmers survive

Changes in Agriculture - In late 1800s, farming became more commercialized and specialized, focused on single cash crop, dependent on expensive machines

• Falling prices - increased prod. of wheat and corn in US, Argentina, Russia, and Canada = lowered costs

• Led to deflation, more debts

National Grange Movement - Social and educational organization for farmers

• Defended members against middlemen, trusts, and railroads

• Established cooperatives

Cooperatives - Businesses owned and run by farmers to defend against middlemen

Granger laws - Regulated rates charged by railroads, keeping railroad companies in check

Munn v. Illinois - 1877, Supreme Court upheld right of state to regulate businesses of a public nature, ie railroads

• Success for farmers in trying to protect common interests

Farmers’ Alliances - Taught scientific farming methods

• Goal of economic and political action, unlike Grange

• By 1890, 1 million people joined farmers’ alliances

Ocala Platform - National organization of farmers met in Ocala, Florida, attacked national parties as subservient to Wall Street bankers and big business, called for reforms:

• Direct election of US Senators (contrary to og Constitution)

• Lower tariff rates

• Graduated income tax (ppl with higher incomes pay higher rates of tax)

• New banking system of fed. gov

6.3 Westward Expansion: Social & Cultural Development

Turner’s Frontier Thesis - Frederick Jackson Turner published an influential essay, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”

• Process of building civilization

• Shaped American culture (independence, individualism, democracy)

• Closing of frontier = class division and social conflict

1890 US Census Bureau - Declared the entire frontier had been settled

American Indians in the West -

• New Mexico and AZ - Pueblo groups, permanent settlements, corn and livestock

• SW - Navajo and Apache, previously nomadic hunter-gatherers, but then crops and livestock, arts and crafts

• Pacific NW (Washington and OR) - Chinook and Shasta, fish and game

• Great Plains - Sioux and Cheyenne, horse riders, hunt buffalo, conflicts with US gov

Reservation Policy - In 1851, fed govn began assigning Plains tribes to reservations with boundaries, but most refused

• 1830s Andrew Jackson policy, moved eastern Natives to the west bc belief that west of MS would be “Indian country”

• False because Oregon trails and transcontinental railroads

Indian Wars - Settlement by miners, ranchers, and homesteaders → conflict with Natives

• Many Native massacres by US

• 1866, Sioux War, Sioux wiped out Capt. Fetterman

• Following wars, treaties were tried to pass

  • Gold miners refused if there was gold

  • Minor chiefs and younger warriors rejected treaties

Ghost Dance & Wounded Knee - Last effort of Natives to resist US gov

• Religiously inspired, could return prosperity to Natives

• Sitting Bull (Sioux medicine man) killed in his arrest

• 12.1890, US killed >200 Natives (massacre of Wounded Knee in Dakotas)

• Ended Indian Wars

Assimilationists - Supported ending Native culture through assimilation; formal education, job training, conversion to Christianity

• Boarding schools (Carlisle School in PA), segregated Native children and taught them White culture

Helen Hunt Jackson - wrote A Century of Dishonor, gained support for assimilation

Dawes Act - 1887, break up tribal organizations to try and civilize Natives

• Gave Natives 47 million acres of land, but 90 million acres of former reservation land was sold

• Failure: disease and poverty killed many Natives

Mexican Americans in the SW - MX independence from Spain → increased contact with US

• Santa Fe Trail (Santa Fe to MO) linked trade and cultural exchange

• Mexicans moved West to find work; sugar beet fields or mines or railroads

• Seasonal workers or permanent settlers

Conservationists - Concerns over deforestation, scientific management and regulated use of natural resources

• Paintings and photographs of western landscapes

• Congress preserve Yosemite Valley park and Yellowstone national park

Yosemite & Yellowstone - Thanks to conservation movement

• Yellowstone first national park in 1872

• Yosemite became CA state park in 1864 → national park in 1890

Preservationists - Preserve natural areas from human interference

John Muir - Founded Sierra Club in 1892

• Helped establish national parks

• Educational awareness

• Pushed for legislation

6.4 The "New South"

Lecture notes

Redeemers Undo Reconstruction - State budgets slashed; hospitals, asylums close, education (literacy decreases in Louisiana)

Crop Lien System - farmers give crops for seeds, tools, and food (now in debt)

Now Black people have less political involvement, land ownership than during Reconstruction

AMSCO:

Henry Grady - ATL native, coins "New South" as new industrial sector

• Old South is gone, now Southern economy is diverse (Textile production, mining in Appalachians)

• Success is minor, EXCEPT hotspot: Birmingham, AL with iron and steel

• Remained agrarian and reliant on Northern capital

• Sharecropping and convict leasing

  • Prison labor provided to plantation owners, mainly Black

Growth of Industry - Gov offer tax exemptions and low-wage labor, growth of cities, textiles industry, and railroads → growth of industry

• Birmingham, AL: Steel producer

• Memphis, TN: Lumber

• Richmond, VA: Tobacco

• GA, NC, SC became leader of textile industry

Tenant farming and sharecroppers - By 1900, >1/2 White farmers and ¾ Black farmers were tenant farmers (rented land) or sharecroppers (paid for use of land with share of crop)

• Southern Banks had little money to lend to farmers

• Lien crop system: Farmers borrowed supplies from merchants with a lien, pay with their crops at harvest → tied to land by debt

Cotton - Postwar South economy tied to cotton

• # of acres doubled

• Increased output in world market led to decline of cotton prices

• Per capita income in South decline → economic hardship for farmers

George Washington Carver - Black scientist in AL, promoted diversifying crops

• Peanuts, sweet potatoes, soybeans

• Shifted southern agriculture to more diversified base

Colored Farmers’ Alliance - Rallied behind political reforms to solve farmers’ economic problems

• 250k members

• Stayed in cycle of debt and poverty

Civil Rights Cases of 1883 - Overturned Civil Rights Act of 1875 (equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, service on juries)

• Congress could not ban racial discrimination practiced by private citizens and businesses used by public

Plessy v Ferguson - Plessy, white-passing (1/8 Black), boarded whites only car

• Supreme Court orders "separate but equal” accomodations

• Legalized segregation in the South

• Set in motion legality of Jim Crow laws

Jim Crow Laws - Southern states began adopting in 1870s; required segregated washrooms, drinking fountains, park benches, all public places

• Only streets and most stores not restricted

• Possible because of federal court decisions which protected segregation (Civil Rights Cases of 1883 and Plessy v Ferguson)

Disenfranchisement of Black voters - poll taxes, grandfather clause, literacy tests

• Not paying poll taxes meant public schools were underfunded too

• Remain into 1960s

Lynch mobs - group of White men violently attacking and killing an individual, typically an African American, without a trial; often motivated by racial hatred and used as a tool of intimidation

• Killed more than 1,400 Black men during 1890s

Economic discrimination - Kept most southern Blacks out of skilled trades and factory jobs

• Could not move into middle class like poor Whites and immigrants

• Black people kept in engaged in farming and low-paying domestic work

Ida B Wells - editor of Memphis Free Speech (Black newspaper) campaigned against lunching and Jim Crow laws

• Death threats and destruction of her printing press stopped her work

Booker T Washington - Born enslaved, went to school. Preached virtues of hard work, moderation, and economic self help

• Advocated to the accommodate for oppression

• Supported the Atlanta Compromise, economic cooperation between Whites and Blacks

Atlanta Compromise - Belief that Black and White Southerners shared a responsibility for making their region prosper

• Washington thought Black should focus on working hard, rather than challenging segregation and discrimination

• In turn, Whites should support education and legal rights for Blacks

WEB Dubois - Black leader, more radical demand to end segregation and granting of civil rights to all Aericans

• Criticized Washington for being willing to accept discrimination

New South - Post-Civil War movement in the Southern United States to transition from a predominantly agrarian economy based on slave labor to a more diversified and industrialized economy; popularized by Henry Grady

• Focus on industrialization

• Mainly failed, except for some hotspots, the South remained dependent on agriculture

6.5 Technological Innovation

New Inventions - Telegraph, transatlantic cable in 1866, typewriter in 1867, telephone in 1876, Kodak camera 1888

• Nearly instantaneous, global communication

• Internationalized markets and prices for basic commodities (grains, coal, steel)

Steel and Bessemer - Henry Bessemer in England 1850s made steel, more durable than iron

• Launched rise of heavy industry

• Great Lakes region (PA to IL) had abundant coal reserves and access to iron from MN → center of steel production

Edison & Westinghouse - Thomas Edison in 1879 first electric lightbulb, George Westinghouse made transformer which produced high voltage alternating current

• Westinghouse replaced Edison’s direct current tech

• Electric trades employed almost 1 million ppl → electric light and power one of nation’s largest and fastest growing industries

Changes in Transportation - Walking to horse-drawn streetcar cities, then 1890s replaced by electric trolleys, elevated railroads, and subways

• Subways - transport ppl to urban residences further than city’s commercial center

• More efficient transport → growth of cities

Skyscrapers - Increased land values in CBD made tall buildings profitable, 1885 Chicago first skyscraper

• Otis elevator and steam heating system

• By 1900, skyscrapers for offices of industry dominated urban skylines

Department Stores - Enabled businesses to sell merchandise to large public

• Macy’s - made large department store popular urban centers

• Increased output of US factories and invention of new consumer products

Mail Order companies - Sears, Roebuck and Co

• Used the improved rail system to ship to rural customers hats and houses

Packaged foods - Kellogg and Post became common items in American homes

• Changed eating habits of Americans with mass-produced meat and vegetable products

Consumer economy - Advertising and new marketing techniques promoted consumer economy

• Created a consumer culture, shopping became favorite hobby

6.6 Rise of Industrial Capitalism

First big business - Railroads were supported by business leadership, capital, technology, markets, labor, and government support (subsidies)

• Created a market for goods, national in scale

• Encouraged mass production, mass consumption, and economic specialization

• Promoted growth of other industries, esp coal and steel

Time Zones - The American Railroad Association divided the country into four time zones

• Became standard time for all Americans

Consolidation & Vanderbilt - Helped solve inefficiencies made different distance between tracks and incompatible equipment → consolidated competing railroads into major routes (trunk lines). Vanderbilt used his millions to merge local railroads into New York Central Railroad

• Connected eastern seaports with Chicago and other Midwestern cities

• Set standards of excellence and efficiency for rest of railroad industry

Problems & corruption - Investors overbuilt in the 1870s and 1880s

• Jay Gould - Speculator, made millions selling assets and watering stock

• Watering stock - inflating the value of a corporation’s assets and profits before selling stock to public

• Rebates - discounts

• Rebates and kickbacks to favored shippers while overcharging small customers (farmers)

• Secretly agreed to fix rates and share traffic (pools)

Interlocking directorates - Same directors ran competing companies; J Pierpont Morgan took control of bankrupt railroads and consolidated them

• Created regional railroad monopolies

• Kept few powerful men powerful

Andrew Carnegie - Led fast-growing steel industry, born in Scotland immigrant, manufactured steel in Pittsburgh, philanthropist sold to Morgan for 400 million

• Employed business strategy called vertical integration

• 1900, Carnegie Steel employed 20k workers and produced more steel than all mills in Britain

Vertical Integration - company control every stage of the industrial process, from mining the raw materials to transporting the finished product

• Reduce costs, improve efficiency, increase profits

John D Rockefeller -

Horizontal Integration -

Trust - Organization or board that manages assets of other companies

• Under Rockefeller, Standard Oil became a trust, managed a combo of once-competing oil companies

Holding company - Created to own and control diverse companies

• Banker J Pierpont Morgan managed a holding company

• Management of companies in various industries, like banking, rail transportation, and steel

Laissez-faire & Adam Smith - Belief in no government regulation of business; economist argued in The Wealth of Nations that mercantalism is less efficient than capitalism

• In 19th century, American industrialists used laissez-faire theory to justify their methods of business

• Even though monopolistic trusts went against natural regulation

Social Darwinism - Belief in natural selection and survival of the fittest, and that it should be applied to the marketplace

• Argued for concentration of wealth in the few and “fit”

William Graham Sumner - Professor at Yale, introduced Social Darwinism to sociology; argued against helping the poor bc interfered with laws of nature

• Provided scientific sanction for racial intolerance

• Race theories about race superiority

Protestant work ethic - Belief that material success was a sign of God’s favor and a just reward for hard work

• Rockefeller applied this theory

• Justified wealth of successful industrialists and bankers

Horatio Alger & “self made men” - Wrote novels which depicted a modest man becoming wealthy through honesty, hard work, and luck; Andrew Carnegie and Thomas Edison examples

• Made Americans inspired and ignore the widening wealth gap

6.7 Labor in the Gilded Age

Need to Know:

Knights of Labor:

- for everyone, men, women, Black, skilled, unskilled

- 800k members

- Haymarket Riot

- Painted as radicalists (marxists)

American Federation of Labor

- Samuel Gompers

- For skilled white men

- Exclusive

Sherman Anti-Trust Act: Las passed to curb power of big business and stop monopolies, but ineffective because ended up being used against strikers

Scientific Management (Taylorism): If you subdivide and standardize labor, it becomes more efficient

- Wage labor

- Designed hierarchies

Wage earners - Jobs required labor ten hours a day, six days a week; large supply of immigrants compete for factory jobs→ very low wages (high demand, limited supply)

• Most could not support a family decently on one income

Iron law of wages - David Ricardo, argued raising wages →more workers → wages fall (cycle of misery and starvation)

• Justified low wages

Industrial Warfare - Management held most of the power in struggles with organized labor

• Tactics by employer

  • Lockout: closing a factory to break a labor movement before it organizes

  • Blacklist: roster of pro-union workers circulate so they cannot find work

  • Yellow-dog contract: contract needed as condition of employment that they cannot join a union

  • Private guards and state militia: force used to put down strikes

  • Court injunction: judicial action to prevent or end a strike

• Made public fear of unions as anarchistic and un-American

• Before 1900, if violence ensued, employers could always count on support of government

Tactics by labor - Political action, direct confrontation (strikes picketing, boycotts, slowdowns)

• Achieve union recognition

• Collective bargaining: ability of workers to negotiate as a group with an employer over wages and working conditions

Great Railroad Strike, 1877 - One of worse outbreaks of labor violence; during economic depression, railroads companies cut wages to reduce costs → strike on Baltimore and Ohio Railroad spread 11 states → became national in scale

• Shut down 2/3 country rail lines,

• Joined by 500k workers from other industries

• First time since 1830s, President Hayes used federal troops to end labor dispute

• Over 100 died

National Labor Union - First attempt to organize all workers in all states (skilled, unskilled, agricultural, industrial)

• 640k members by 1868

• Championed higher wages and 8 hour work day

• Social program for women and Black people, money reform, and worker cooperatives

• Won 8 hour day for federal government workers

• Lost support after economic depression and strikes of 1877

Knights of Labor - 2nd national labor union, began as secret society to avoid detection by employers, membership to all workers including Blacks and women

• Advocated for worker cooperatives, abolishing child labor, trust and monopolies, settling labor disputes by arbitration (settling)

• Loosely organized so Powderly could not control those who wanted to strike

• Peak membership of 730k in 1886

• Declined after Haymarket riot

Haymarket Bombing - Chicago, 80k Knights in 1886, on May Day movement for general strike to achieve 8 hour work day → as police tried to break up meeting, someone threw a bomb

• 7 police officers died

• 8 anarchist leaders tried and 7 sentenced to death (bomber never found)

• Americans concluded union movement was radical and violent

• Knights of Labor declined

American Federation of Labor - 1886, concentrated on "bread and butter unionism", attempt economic goals

• Championed higher wages, improved working conditions

• Collective bargaining with employers

• In 1901, largest labor org., 1 million members

Samuel Gompers - Led American Federation of Labor

• Largest labor org.

• Major successes in early 20th century

Homestead strike - Henry Clay Frick, manager of Carnegie's Homestead Steel plant in PA, cut wages 20% → strike

• Used weapons of lockout, private guards, strikebreakers

• Defeated steelworker's walkout after 5 mos

• 16 ppl died in conflict

• Set back the union movement in steel industry until New Deal in 1930s

Pullman strike - George Pullman's company near Chicago, manufactured railroad sleeping cars; cut wages and fired leaders who tried to bargain

• Workers appealed for help from American Railroad Union

• Tied up rail transportation across the country

Eugene Debs - ARU's leader directed railroad workers in Pullman strike to not handle any trains with Pullman cars

• Arrested and jailed for not listening to President Cleveland's injunction that forbid interference with the operation of mail

• In re Debs (1895) Supreme Court approved use of court injunctions against strikes → gave employers powerful legal weapon to break unions

• After jail sentence, Debs turned to socialism, helped found American Socialist Party

6.8 Immigration and Migration

Push & Pull factors: Combination of positive and negative factors for immigration to America

• Push

  • Poverty of displaced farmworkers, bc political turmoil and mechanization of farm work

  • Overcrowding and joblessness, bc population growth

  • Religious persecution, esp Jews

• Pull

  • Reputation for political and religious freedom

  • Economic opportunities

Old immigrants - Northern and Western Europe: British Isles, Germany, Scandinavia

• Protestants

• English speaking, high literacy

• Occupational skills

• Easy to belnd into rural American society in early 1800s

• Irish and German Roman Catholics faced discrimination

New immigrants - Beginning 1890s through WW1, from southern and eastern Europe

• Italy, Greece, Croatia, Slovakia, Poland, Russia

• Poor and illiterate

• Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Jewish

• Unskilled factory, mining, construction jobs

• Workers in poor ethnic neighborhoods of cities

Chinese Exclusion Act - 1882, ended immigration of people from China

• First large migration to US from China was 1848 (CA Gold Rush)

Patterns of urban development - Cities grew in size, internal structure and design changed

• Upper and middle class moved to streetcar suburbs to escape pollution, poverty, and crime

• Working poor moved into city

• Led to class, race, ethnic, and cultural divisions in American society

Ethnic neighborhoods - Immigrant groups created distinct ethnic neighborhoods, could maintain own language, culture, church or temple, social club. Newspapers and schools

• Tenement apartments: small, windowless rooms - 4k people into one city block

• Overcrowding and filth → spread of deadly diseases

6.9 Response to Immigration

Opposition to Immigration -

• Labor union members (immigrants lower wages and break strikes)

• Employers (advocate radical reforms)

• Nativists (weaken culture Protestants)

• Social darwinists (southern and eastern Europeans and all non-EU biologically inferior to people of English and Germanic heritage)

American Protective Association - Largest anti-Catholic organization of the 1890s

• Opposed immigration

Chinese Exclusion Act - Banned all immigration from China

• Hostility came from western states

• Mining towns, half population were foreign-born, most Chinese

• CA Miner's Tax →Chinese exclusion act

Contract Labor Law of 1885 - Restricted temporary workers to protect Americans from competition

• To limit undesirable people (paupers, criminals, convicts, mentally incompetent)

Ellis Island - Harbor in New York harbor as immigration center in 1892

• New arrivals had to pass more rigorous medical exams and pay a tax before entering US

Political machines and bosses - Tightly organized groups of politicians

• Boss is top politician who gave orders to rank and gave government jobs to loyal supporters

• Brought modern services to city (welfare for urban newcomers)

Tammany Hall - Political machine in New York

• Started as a social club → power center to coordinate the needs of businesses, immigrants, underprivileged for votes on election day

• Helped immigrants, esp Irish

• Could be greedy and generous - stole millions from taxpayers

• 65% of public building funds ended up in Tammany Hall's Boss Tweed

Boss Tweed - William Tweed, political head of Tammany Hall

• Construction of NY

• Gathering support and votes while voting for laws that kept immigrants in poor conditions

Settlement houses - Houses where immigrants came to live, got instruction in English and how to get a job, healthcare, childcare

• Improved lives of immigrants and poor in urban areas

• Helped pave the way for future social welfare programs

• By 1910, more than 400 settlement houses in large US cities

Jane Addams & Hull House - Most famous settlement house founded by Jane Addams → Hull House

• Taught English to immigrants, early-childhood education, industrial arts, established neighborhood theaters and music schools

Melting pot v Salad bowl - Perspectives on immigrants’ lives

• Melting pot: Immigrant groups shed old-world traits to become successful citizens of adopted country

  • Melted European immigrants into a "new race of men"

• Salad bowl: First generation immigrants remained alienated and did not lose their cultural identity, only after 2 or 3 generations did they assimilate fully

6.10 Development of Middle Class

Expanding Middle Class - salaried employers whose jobs don’t involve manual labor: White collar workers

• Middle management: needed to coordinate operations between chief execs and workers

• Increased demand for other middle class workers (scientists, engineers, accountants, clerical, doctors, lawyers)

Gospel of Wealth - Wealthy has moral responsibility to help lower class and community, Andrew Carnegie’s idea (steel)

• 350 mill for libraries, university, concert halls

• Critics called paternalistic

Philanthropy - Generous donation of money to good causes

• Funded social needs like education and healthcare

• scientific and artistic advancements

Working women - 1/5 adult women in wage work, young and single

• women with higher education became doctors, lawyers, professors

• lots of clerical workers

• nursing and teaching

Growth of suburbs (reasons) - low coast land, transportation by rail, wooden frame house decreased costs

• middle class families moved from large cities to suburbs

City Beautiful movement - plans to make America cities with trees, public parks, public cultural attractions

• Many believed sohuld be government/public’s responsibility

Public schools & kindergarten - compulsory education laws increased # students enrolled

• Literacy rate → 90% by 1900

• Emphasized reading, writing, arithmetic

High Education (sources) - Morrill Acts (land grants for states to establish colleges), wealthy philanthropists

• Education for women and Black

• Careers in agriculture, mining, engineering, science

• More affordable state colleges than private

• 1870 (50k) → 1920 (600k) students

Social Sciences - Psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science

• address social issues

  • Labor unions, trusts, economy

  • evolution

  • human behavior

  • crime in urban cities

Growth of leisure time (reasons) - less hours worked, better transport, promotional advertisements, decrease puritan and victorian values that discourages play

• more leisure time and activities

• more consumption and consumerism

Popular Press & mass circulation - sensational stories about crimes, disasters, political and economic corruption

• Pulitzer’s New York World 1 million circulation, and Hearst NY newspaper

• Ladies Home Journal - sold for 10c a copy bc advanced tech

Amusements - Circuses (Barnum and Bailey), rollercoasters, picnics, outdoor recreation

• commuter streetcarts and railroad companies promoted weekend recreation

Music - John Philip Sousa (popular marches); Jazz, ragtime, blues music gained popularity

• orchestras, opera houses, bands

• syncretism - African rhythms

Spectator sports - Baseball (urban game), Football (started at colleges)

• Jim crow laws prohibited black players from joining all-white teams

Amateur sports - Croquet, bicycling for women; golf, tennis for athletic clubs; polo, yachting for rich

• healthy exercise

• Jews, catholics, blacks discriminated at clubs

6.11 Reform in the Gilded Age

Progress and Poverty

Looking Backward

Salvation Army

Social Gospel movement

Social workers

Families in urban society

Voting rights for women

Temperance movement

• Anti-saloon league

• Carrie Nation

Realism

Naturalism

Ashcan School

Architecture

• Louis Sullivan

• Frank Lloyd Wright