Ap human geo unit 4

Unit 4 Big Ideas:

1. How do historical and current events influence political structures around the world?

Historical and current events can shape political structures in profound ways, influencing everything from the types of governments that emerge to the relationships between countries. Wars, revolutions, and economic crises can lead to significant changes in government leadership, the formation of new political parties, and the adoption of new policies and laws. Based on past histories of the world and specific nations, they can choose to be unitary or federal states; this can be based on multiple factors such as ethnicity, formed around a tight-knit community that shares commonalities involving culture, traditions, and history. They can also influence boundaries; some boundaries might be based on political disputes in the past or treaties. 

2. How are balances of power reflected in political boundaries and government power structures?

Political boundaries and government power structures can reflect existing balances of power. For example, countries with strong militaries may have larger territories or more influence in international affairs, while those with weaker militaries may form alliances with other countries for protection. Federal systems of government, where power is shared between a central government and regional governments, can be used to balance the power of different groups within a country.

3. How can political, economic, cultural, or technological changes challenge state sovereignty?

 Political, economic, cultural, and technological changes can all challenge state sovereignty. Globalization can make it more difficult for countries to control their borders and trade, while the rise of multinational corporations can give these companies more power than some governments. Cultural changes, such as the growth of nationalism and ethnic identity, can lead to separatist movements and other forms of political instability. Technological advancements, like new communication technologies, can empower citizens to organize and challenge their governments.

Topics 4.1: Introduction to Political Geography

• Types of Political Entities

  • Independent State

    • A state that rules itself and is not subject to the authority of another state. 

      • Have sovereignty 

      • Right to control their borders and outside influence 

  • Sovereign States

    • A state that possesses the sole authority over the land and people within its boundaries.

      • Mexico

      • Czechia

      • Zambia

      • Laos

      • New Zealand

  • Nation 

    • A community of people bound to a homeland and possessing a common identity based on shared cultural traits such as language, ethnicity, and religion. 

      • Native American groups in the US. 

      • Cornish people in the UK (celtic heritage). 

  • Nation-state

    • The ideal political geographical unit; one in which the nation’s geographic boundaries (people + culture) match the territorial boundaries (governance and authority). 

      • South Korea (high korean population). 

      • Japanese (high Japanese population). 

      • Iceland (high Icelandic population). 

  • Nationalism is the sense of belonging to and self-identifying with a national culture. 

  • Stateless Nations

    • An ethnic group of a nation that does not possess its own state and is not the majority population in any nation-state. 

      • Kurds

        • Historic territory, Kurdistan, is now divided among Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey, therefore not having any nation-state. Attempts for independence had been taken, but none were successful. 

  • Multinational States

    • A country containing multiple national, ethnic, and religious groups within its boundaries. 

      • Yugoslavia

        • Citizens did not identify themselves as Yugoslavs with a distinct national identity but rather as Sloevnes, Croats, Serbs, and other ethnic groups. 

          • State collapsed and broke into smaller states such as Slovenia, Croatia, etc. 

  • Autonomous Region

    • A section or territory of a country that has a degree of self-government, or autonomy, in its decision making. 

      • In the U.S, Native American regions such as the Navajo Nation & the Cherokee Nation are autonomous regions, with the ability to control their own affairs. 

  • Semi Autonomous Region

    • Has some degree of, but not complete, self-government. 

      • Catalonia in Spain has a semi autonomous government run by Catalan nationalists. 

Topics 4.2: Political Processes

• Sovereignty & Self-Determination

  • Refers to a nation’s ability to determine its own statehood and form its own allegiances and government. 

  • Desired outcome will reflect the recognition of the people and the formation of a sovereign state. 

    • French Revolution - wanted to be recognized as their own state. 

  • Core Area

    • Political power centers formed in locations with attractive resources such as fertile soil & geographic features (rivers and valleys), which can make the place habitable. 

      • People gathered, populations grew, and then a form of defense against invaders also grew. 

        • France spread from Paris to the area around to create a much larger territory. 

    • Known to be much stronger than countries made to fill a political void. 

    • Helps develop nationalism & unity in a country. 

  • Physical Environment 

    • The physical environment and features such as terrain, soils, and climate can create or disrupt the formation of political phenomena and boundaries. Before warfare, escarpments, or abrupt slopers that broke up the general continuity of the terrain, were a form of natural protection. 

  • Sovereignty and Globalization

    • In modern day, the internet was perceived to be a factor negatively impacting the sovereignty for certain countries since it led to the rapidly advancing trade markets, linking countries’ economies. However, it is now seen to be a form of effective sovereignty, the idea that a state’s power to enforce its sovereignty may extend beyond its territory and varies overtime and from country to country.

      • The dispute with the Guantanamo center and U.S. territory, with the U.S. arguing that it is out of their jurisdiction, but also ignoring the Cuban state’s claim of sovereignty over the area and enforced sole authority within the boundaries of the naval base. 

        • Here, it can be seen that globalization can either strengthen state sovereignty (for the U.S) or weaken it (Cuba), so it matters to which degree a state is able to enforce its sovereignty. 

• Colonialism & Imperialism

  • Through the development in resources and accessibility in poor cities, and colonization by wealthier cities, other nation states begin to develop or become a part of a multinational state. 

    • Africa became colonized by Europeans through trading and manufacturing goods. 

  • Colonization is the result of imperialism. 

    • It involves the formal establishment and maintenance of rule by a wealthy sovereign power over a foreign population through the presence of colonial rulers in the conquered territory. 

• Independence Movements

  • Africa

    • Creation of new patterns of interaction among the conquered populations. 

    • Colonial rule in Africa depended on establishing a relatively small group of educated African civil servants. 

      • Because they were introduced to the idea of independence movements in the Western countries, the educated Africans returned to their countries armed with the ideas and organized new nationalist movements to oppose colonial rule. 

        • Before 1950, the only three African countries that had independence were Egypt, Liberia, and Ethiopia. Afterwards, countries with majority white populations continued to gain independence, followed by surrounding areas. 

  • South America

    • South American colonies were home to Spanish and Portuguese elites who, like the elites in the United States, became frustrated with the orders and contung tax demands from Spain and Portugal. 

      • Wars for independence took place. 

  • Modern Europe

    • In the fifteenth century, Spain’s territorial boundaries resulted in a treaty that united two powerful kingdoms, Castile and Aragon. Catalonia’s capital city, Barcelona, was part of Aragon. A Catalan nationalist movement aros and called for independence. Barcelona and Madrid became competing centers of power, a situation that continues to threaten Spain’s sovereignty over its territory. 

• Devolution

  • The movement of power from the central government to regional governments within the state. 

    • Can occur when a country alters its constitution and establishes a federal system that recognizes the authority of regional governments.

      • Catalonia has a certain degree of autonomy in Spain. 

• Ethnocultural Forces & Ethnonationalism

  • Ethnocultural forces include ethnicity, language, and religion, acting separately or in combination. 

  • Ethnonationalism is the support for the political interests of a particular ethnic group that has a strong feeling of belonging to a minority nation within a state, especially its national independence or self-determination. 

    • Yugoslavia

      • After WWI, Yugoslavia was ruled by a centralized dictatorship with six tightly held republics until 1980, when Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia declared independence. 

      • It was engaged in multiple conflicts until 2008 when some form of peace was established. 

• Economic Forces

  • Catalonia

    • There was controversy, and continues to be as Catalonia does not receive the same value generated from exports and imports from the Spanish central government, specifically Madrid. This has continued to further delay Catalonia’s financial independence from Madrid. 

• Territorial Forces

  • Almost always occur on the margins of states and islands. 

  • Remote territories are almost always separated by some form of geography, so they typically lack communication with the capitals. 

Topics 4.3: Political Power and Territoriality 

• Neocolonialism

  • The set of economic and political strategies by which wealthy and powerful countries indirectly maintain or extend their influence over less wealthy areas. 

  • Describes a modern style of power.

  • Periphery States that have relatively little development all around, while Core states are highly developed all around. 

  • Under neocolonialism, core states, mostly by exporting agricultural products and raw materials or providing foreign-aid loans, interfere with peripheral states. 

    • It causes the peripheral state to become dependent on the resources that the core states provide. 

  • African Neocolonialism

    • For instance, cacao beans are not suitable to grow in European countries, so they take advantage of Africa’s climate to grow them instead. If demand decreases, they are out of luck, and it is only being done with Europe’s best interests in mind. Here, Europe is the core state, with Africa as the peripheral state. 

    • In the end, the profits from growing the crop will generate revenue for Europe, not directly to Africa. This repetition of dependence on Europe for some form of development or revenue, reflects neocolonialism. 

• Shatterbelts

  • Regions of continuing and persistent fragmentation due to devolution and centrifugal forces. Other times, they can act as buffer zones between two countries hostile to one another. 

  • Typically have a high level of religious, linguistic, and ethnic diversity, combined with a high level of hostility among the groups living there. 

  • Eastern Europe Shatterbelt 

    • It contains numerous impoverished, underdeveloped, and weak states placed together between the powerful global rivals of Russia and the West (western Europe and the US). 

      • A zone where various religions and ethnicities mix.

• Chokepoints 

  • A narrow passage that restricts traffic to another region. 

  • Can appear on land as a narrow valley or at sea as a narrow body of water. 

  • Strait of Homuz 

    • Surrounded by Iran, Oman, and the UAE. 

    • Most efficient route for oil-producing countries to ship their oil to East Asia. 

  • Strait of Malacca

    • Shortest sea route from Persian Gulf to Asian markets. 

    • Its narrowness makes ships more susceptible to blockades and piracy, which are prevalent in the area. 

• Territoriality 

  • A political and cultural strategy used by individuals, groups, or organizations to claim power over an area of land and its people and resources. 

    • Soviet Union

      • Since Russia is the largest in this commonwealth, the fact that Ukraine and Georgia, which are examples of republics with ongoing tensions, are moving farther away from Russia and closer to Europe and the United States

        • Russia considers this a loss of power over territory that it once held. 

• Boundaries

  • A clearly demarcated line that identifies both the limits of a territory and divisions between territories. 

  • Originated in Europe and diffused globally.

  • Demarcated political boundaries are often marked with clear strips of land, barriers, forts, anti-tank obstacles, and other military installations. 

  • Visibility of interior borders within a country can reflect the government’s strength and stability. 

    • Stable countries mark their internal borders clearly. 

      • The United States marks borders with welcome signs on the roads. 

  • Median Line principle 

    • An approach to divide and create a boundary at the midpoint between two places.

      • Used to delineate at the border in the middle of the Hudson River.

  • Some parts of the world are fragmented into many states, whereas other regions exhibit much greater unity. 

    • The United States has around the same landmass as Europe, but Europe is split into 47 different countries. 

  • Enclave is a territory surrounded by a country but not ruled by it, while an exclave is a part of a national territory separated from the main body of the country to which it belongs. 

    • Lesotho is an enclave within the borders of South Africa. 

    • Alaska is an exclave of the United States.

Topics 4.4: Defining Political Boundaries

• Delimited & Demarcated

  • Delimited boundaries are fixed or defined to identify the limits or boundary of an area, and demarcated boundaries are set apart to distinguish those limits.  

• Relic Boundaries

  • A boundary that no longer functions as an international border. However, they often leave behind identifiable features in the cultural landscape. 

    • Hadrian’s Wall

      • After the Romans invaded and defeated England, Hadrian, and Roman emperor, had a wall built to guard the northwest frontier of the Roman Empire from invasion by the Scots from the north. 

      • Today, remnants of the wall are visible on the ground that follow the original wall at the UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

    • Berlin Wall

      • When Germany was split into West Germany (Soviet Union controlled) and East Germany (Allied Nations controlled), the Berlin Wall functioned not only to keep out enemies, but also to prevent people from leaving the East German section. 

      • With the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1989, the wall was dismantled. 

      • Remnants remain as tourist attractions. 

• Superimposed Boundaries

  • A boundary that is placed on an area without regard to existing boundaries. 

    • Belgium imposed the boundaries of Rwanda and Burundi during the colonial period, and those boundaries were still in place after the decolonization. 

    • Superimposed boundaries created during the colonial period often led to civil wars ad sometimes even genocide. 

• Subsequent boundaries 

  • A political boundary that developed with the cultural landscape. 

    • Border between China and Vietnam. 

      • Border was negotiated and agreed upon by both countries in the aftermath of the Ly-Song War. 

      • Primarily follows rivers, which is a specific geographic feature. 

• Antecedent Boundaries

  • Boundary that was identified before an area was settled. 

    • 49th parallel, the line of latitude used to delimit the boundary that separates the western United States from Canada, is an antecedent boundary.

      • Negotiated between Great Britain and the United States in 1846. 

    • Boundary between Malaysia and Indonesia

      • In 1973, Indonesia and Malaysia agreed to a joint survey and the demarcation of the land border based on the boundary indicators, which was according to the flow of watersheds to the coastal areas they controlled, from the Anglo-Dutch Treaty and subsequent agreements. 

• Geometric Boundaries

  • A boundary that has regular, often perfectly straight, lines drawn without regard for an area’s physical or cultural features. 

    • North Korean DMZ - on the 39th parallel, which is a line of latitude. 

• Consequent Boundaries

  • A Boundary that is drawn to accommodate existing cultural differences.

    • Coincides with some cultural divide, such as religion or language.

      • China and Vietnam 

        • The treaty was signed for peace, so it serves a purpose. 

      • Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland

        • Border can be identified as a division between Protestant and Catholic religions.  

• Demilitarized Zones

  • An area in which treaties or agreements between nations, military powers, or contending groups forbid military installations, activities, or personnel. 

  • Usually lies between an established frontier between two military powers or alliances. 

    • DMZ in Korean peninsula 

      • Fixed at the end of World War II 

      • Created by mutual agreement

• Political Agreements are created as a result of multicountry treaties.

  • Berlin Conference 

    • A conference where a joint policy was decided between 13 European nations involving the access to the Congo River basin. 

• Buffer States

  • A politically and economically weak independent country that lies between the borders of two powers. 

    • Thailand (Siam) served as a buffer state between Upper Burma and French Indochina. 

• Satellite States

  • A nominally independent country that is politically, militarily, and economically controlled by a more powerful state. 

    •  During the Cold War, Hungary was a Satellite State of the USSR.

      • State was completely controlled by the USSR.  

Topics 4.5 & 4.6: The Function of Political Boundaries & Internal Boundaries

• Voting Districts 

  • Most democratic countries divide their territories into voting districts or precincts to organize voting. Accordingly, citizens cast their votes in voting districts or precinct boundaries. 

    • For instance, in the United States, it is a federation of 50 states that are further broken down by municipalities, townships, and special districts. 

• Electoral College

  • For the election of the president of the United States, they are elected by the electoral college, not the popular vote. 

  • A body of 538 electors in the United States; a majority of 270 electoral votes is required to elect the president; a state’s number of electors equals the number of members in it's congressional delegation (one for each member in the House of Representatives plus two for its senators). 

• Reapportionment and redistricting 

  • After each U.S. census, a count of the U.S. population that takes place every 10 years, the federal government conducts congressional reapportionment. 

    • The process by which the 435 seats in the U.S. The House of Representatives are divided proportionately by population among the 50 states. 

      • Between 2000 and 2010, New York lost two seats in the House. New Jersey and Pennsylvania lost one seat each, and Texas gained four seats. 

  • Following this, each state legislature oversees redistricting for its state. 

    • The process of drawing new boundaries for U.S. congressional districts to reflect the population changes since the previous U.S. census. 

      • Goal is to establish voting areas of more or less equal population and to increase or reduce the number of districts depending on the change in total population. 

  • Gerrymandering 

    • The manipulation of voting district boundaries to favor a particular political party, group, or election outcome. 

    • It can be accomplished by two methods: packing and cracking. 

      • Packing draws district boundaries so as to concentrate all the opposition party into one district, which creates an unnecessarily large majority while also ensuring that it cannot win elsewhere. 

        • This establishes that they would have votes well beyond the number needed to win. 

      • Cracking  draws the boundaries so as to divide opposition into many districts, thereby diluting the opposition’s vote so that it does not form a majority in any district. 

        • This establishes earlier on that the district does not have enough votes to win. 

    • Gerrymandering in Wisconsin

      • Gill v. Whitford 

        • A gerrymandering case from Wisconsin. 

          • Party in power argued that it was democratically elected and the redistricting reflects the will of the people. 

          • Opponents claimed that it locked in an unfair advantage to the party in power and that it was undemocratic. 

          • Based on their final decision, it was believed that the Wisconsin case would be dismissed and that the 2011 political maps favoring Republicans would remain in place until new maps were drawn following the 2020 Census. 

  • Regions and Voting Behavior

    • Red States and blue states became a way to differentiate the republicans from the democrats, or to divide the United States into regions of “conservative” and “liberal” countries. This can be seen in maps, when they are used to represent the votes for a candidate.

 Topics 4.7: Forms of Governance 

• Unitary States 

  • An independent state that concentrates power in the central government and grants little to no authority to its subnational units. 

    • France, Japan, the Republic of Ireland, Saudi Arabia, and China.

    •  Works best with smaller countries that have few internal cultural differences + a strong sense of nationalism. 

  • Spatial Organization

    • Iceland: It is a unitary state with a parliamentary government. 

      • Only two levels of administration: national and local councils. 

      • The head of each state is the president (they have 8 states), and the councils are responsible for many things: water supply, electricity, education, and social services. 

      • Do not have ethnic diversities. 

    • Rwanda: It has 12 different regions, and chose to govern as a unitary state. 

      • In the past, there was ethnic warfare between the Hutus, and the minority Tutsis, which had caused warfare earlier in their history. By governing as a unitary state, the president had a goal to create ethnically diverse administrative areas that are identified by the cardinal points of the com[pass to avoid the appearance of ethnic regions; they are still trying to push nationalism and centripetal forces within the country without emphasizing ethnicity as much, likely due to past conflicts. 

      • Even now, the Hutus are facing oppression and the country is pushing to leave the differences, and assert authority. 

      • In 2005, the 12 provinces changed to 4 provinces, and a major city. 

• Federal States 

  • An independent country that disperses significant authority among subnational units. 

    • United States, Canada, Australia, and Switzerland. 

    • Local governments have greater authority where they are able to pass their own laws, levy taxes, and administer school districts. 

    • Are able to easily accommodate different nationalities. 

  • Spatial Organization 

    • Acknowledges the existence of regional cultural differences and provides the mechanism that allows the regions to keep their individuality 

    • Power is shared between the national government + various regions.

    • Belgium: Four regions in Wallonia, the larger region with French culture, and five regions in the Flanders region, the larger region with Dutch culture. 

      • French and Dutch are the official languages. 

      • Representatives to the national government are equally divided between French and Dutch speakers. 

      • Each region has an independent legislative and executive branch in the form of a regional parliament and regional government. 

      • Central government is responsible for foreign affairs, national defense, justice, and finance.

Topics 4.8: Defining Devolutionary  Factors

• Ethnic Cleansing 

  • Forced removal of an ethnic group by another ethnic group to create ethnically homogenous territories. 

    • Yugoslavia ethnic wars in the 1990s created refugees across Europe’s Balkan Peninsula.

    • Ethnic cleansing in Rwanda sent refugees into three different countries. 

  • Results can be genocide. 

• Terrorism

  • Calculated use of violent acts against civilians and symbolic targets to publicize a cause, intimidate or coerce a civilian population, or affect the conduct of the government. 

    • Affected the world for many centuries. 

  • Scales of terrorism. 

    • International terrorism

      • Transcends national boundaries and is intended to intimidate people in other countries. 

        • September 11, 2011, attacks by Muslim extremists on the World Trade Center & Pentagon. 

    • Domestic terrorism

      • Acts by individuals or groups against the citizens or the government. 

        • 1995 Oklahoma City bombing perpetrated by two white supremacists, who bombed a federal building as a protest against the U.S. government’s handling of a situation in Waco, Texas, killing multiple people in the process. 

    • State terrorism

      • Committed by the government agents whose leaders have ordered them to murder, imprison, or force leaders into exile perceived enemies of the state. 

        • Nazi Germany 

    • Subnational terrorism

      • Instigated by non government groups that feel wronged by their government. 

        • ETA (Basque separatist organization in Spain that used terrorism in its campaign for an independent Basque state). 

          • Targeted & killed Spanish military and police personnel, judges, journalists, and university professors who spoke out against their ideologies. 

• Irredentism

  • The political claim to territory in another country based on ethnic affiliations and historic borders.

    • In 2014, Russia seized the Crimean peninsula, a region of Ukraine that is ethnically Russian. 

      • Russian troops invaded the peninsula and helped Russian Crimeans forcely forge over the regional government and cede the territory to Russia. 

  • Usually arises when an ethnic majority ruling one country seeks to reunite with people of the same ethnicity who are minorities in a neighboring country.  

Topics 4.9: Challenges  to Sovereignty

• Innovations in Technology influencing Sovereignty

  • Many countries might try to restrict the citizens’ access to technology. 

  • Some might allow citizens to have access, but limit the amount of information accessible to them. 

    • Firewall of China uses a range of computer software tools to block Chinese citizens’ access to multiple foreign websites and to slow down Internet traffic across their borders. 

      • Because they share multiple social media platforms, such as WeChat, Tiktok, QQ, and more, they can control information globally as well. 

  • Democratization 

    • Occurs when a sovereign state moves from a non-democracy to a democracy. 

      • Tunisia and Egypt

        • States that still retain significant control over global information flows across borders, sometimes forcing private service providers to choose between complying with state censorship laws or being barred from doing business. 

  • Governments can take extreme measures and actions to halt information flow during periods of unrest. 

  • Supranationalism

    • Occurs when a collection of nation-states and their citizens relinquish some sovereign rights to a larger-scale political body that exercises authority over its members. 

  • Supranational organizations 

    • International political body that nation-states establish in cooperation with their neighbors for mutual political, military, economic, or cultural gain. 

      • United Nations

        • International organization that is responsible for maintaining peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and harmonizing the actions of nations. 

        • Currently consists of 193 member states, all of which also makeup the General Assembly. 

        • All member states have to give up some sovereignty to remain part of the UN Charter and United Nations in general. 

      • European Union

        • A political, economic, and social union of 28 independent European countries that promotes the free movement of goods, people, services, and capital among it's members. 

        • Sought the former satellite states of the Soviet Union. 

        • Sought to weaken the power of it's member countries to prevent conflicts. 

        • Sought to create an economy and market on a scale large enough to compete globally with the United States and China. 

        • Member countries have replaced their currency with the EURO, except some countries. 

        • Brexit

      • African Union

        • A continental organization of African states that seeks to drive Africa’s growth and economic development through cooperation and integration of member states. 

• Transnational and Environmental Challenges

  • Individual communities or countries may not be equipped to deal with environmental challenges or recognize that the impact is more than a local problem in the world. 

    • Arctic Council

      • An international government forum that promotes interaction among the Arctic states and indigenous communities on common Arctic issues, particularly sustainable development and environmental protection. 

• Trade Agreements

  • Regional trading bloc

    • A multi-country agreement that reduces or eliminates taxes to promote the free flow of goods and services across international borders. 

      • Try to achieve economies of scale

        • Cost advantages that can come with a larger scale of populations.

• Military alliances

  • Military operations and security are key goals of some supranational organizations. 

    • NATO

      • An intergovernmental military alliance with the purpose of guaranteeing freedom and security of its members. 

Topics 4.10: Challenges to Sovereignty

• Centrifugal forces + impacts on states

  • Failed States

    • A state whose political or economic system has become so weak that the government is no longer in control. 

      • Can be caused by…

        • Corruption 

        • Lost trust of citizens

        • Lost ability to project authority

    • Yemen

      • Failed state due to civil war due to two governments disputing for authority. 

    • Venezuela

      • Failed state due to the selection of two leaders. 

  • Uneven development

    • Occurs when core states have advanced economies and a high standard of living while peripheral states have relatively little industrial development, simple production systems based mostly on raw materials, and low levels of consumption of manufactured goods. 

      • Result of neocolonialism 

  • Stateless nations

    • Can be a centrifugal force in the nations whose territory they occupy. 

      • Kurds in Central Asia

  • Ethnic Nationalists Movements

    • Existence of two or more culturally distinct regions with national boundaries. 

      • Walloons and Flemish in Belgium 

• Centripetal forces + impacts on states

  • Nationalism

    • People identify with their state and its national goals, so they are a part of their identity. 

      • All citizens would pay taxes and vote as residents of that state rather than as part of their ethnic group. 

    • Helps integrate different groups into a unified population that accepts the ideologies and laws of the state and participates in a way of life that is different from life in other countries. 

    • Leaders often ask for allegiance to promote nationalism, the citizens must pledge allegiance, while the government pledges to provide security. 

  • Infrastructure Development

    • Refers to the high-cost investments, such as airports, interstate highways, and power plants, that are vital to a country’s economic and social development + prosperity..  

      • Networks provided the infrastructure for commerce, trade, and transportation in later years. 

  • Cultural Cohesion

    • Cultural unity that occurs when the members of a society are culturally united.